affective factors

PlurilingualStudents’AcquisitionofCatalaninaCatalan–SpanishBilingualContext

`BERNAUSMERCE

UABFacultatCi`enciesdel’Educaci´o

DepartamentdeDid`acticadelaLlengua08193BellateraSpain

Email:merce.bernaus@uab.es

EMILEEMOOREUABFacultatCi`enciesdel’Educaci´o

DepartamentdeDid`acticadelaLlengua08193BellateraSpain

Email:emilee.moore@campus.uab.es

ADRIANACORDEIROAZEVEDOUABFacultatCi`enciesdel’Educaci´oDepartamentdeDid`acticadelaLlengua08193BellateraSpain

Email:adriana_azevedo@walla.com

Thisstudyexploredtheaffectivefactorsinfluencingstudents’learningofCatalanacrossdif-ferentyearlevelsinamultilingualschoolcommunityinBarcelona(Catalonia,Spain).Ques-tionnairesweredistributedto176students,from12to17yearsofage,registeredinapublicsecondaryschool,themajorityofwhomwerenotborninCatalonia.Thisstudyisuniquefortworeasons.First,manyofthestudentsweresimultaneouslylearning2officiallanguages—CatalanandSpanish—bothinsideandoutsidetheclassroom,plus1foreignlanguage,English.Second,theinstrumentusedtoassesstheaffectivevariablesmadeuseofscalesfrom2differentmodels,byD¨ornyei(2001)andGardner(1985).Therewere4majorresults.First,itwasfoundthatthestudentsusedCatalanveryinfrequentlyincomparisontoSpanisheventhoughCatalanisanofficiallanguageandisthelanguageoftheschool.Second,thestudents’countryoforiginhadrelativelylittleinfluenceonmostoftheaffectivemeasures.Third,attitudesandmotivationde-creasedandlanguageanxietyincreasedasyearlevelincreased.Finally,theconstructsassessedbythescalesinthe2models(i.e.,D¨ornyei,2001;Gardner,1985)arelargelyfactoriallydistinct,tappingdifferentaffectivedimensions.AWORLDINWHICHTHETRANSFEROFbothproductsandpeoplehasbecomeapartoflifeimpliessocialchangesand,consequently,changesineducationalinstitutions.Classroomsbecomemultilingualandmulticulturalspacesasaresultofthediversityofstudentswhocomefromdifferentpartsoftheworldandbringwiththemtheirownlinguisticandculturalbackgrounds.Ithasbeenourexperiencethatthesestudentsenrichtheclassroomwiththeirlinguisticand

culturalknowledge,andwebelievethatthislin-guisticvarietymighthelpstudentsdevelopposi-tiveattitudestowardlanguagesandtheirspeakers,andmaypossiblyraisetheirmotivationforlearn-ingnewlanguages.

Inthisstudy,wewereinterestedindeterminingwhetherlinguisticandculturaldiversityinclass-roomsmightrelatetomeasuresofattitudes,mo-tivation,languageanxiety,andself-perceptionsofcompetenceinCatalan.WethusconductedastudyinamultilingualandmulticulturalschoolinBarcelona(Spain).Althoughourprimarycon-cernwastherelationshipsamongthesevariables,wealsoassessedwhetheryearlevelinsecondaryschoolandcountryoforiginhadanyeffectonthesevariables.

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CATALONIA:ANDCULTURALALINGUISTICPATCHWORK

Accordingtorecentdata,CataloniaisnotonlytheSpanishregionwiththelargestconcentra-tionofimmigrants,butalsooneoftheregionsofEuropehavingthemostforeigners(Play`aMaset,2005).CataloniawastraditionallyazonethattookinmigrantworkersfromotherregionsofSpain;however,thephenomenonofforeignimmigra-tioninCataloniaatsuchacceleratedratesasexistatpresentisrelativelynew.

InBarcelona,thecapitalcityofCatalonia,12.8%ofthepopulationinJanuary2004wereforeignnationals.Accordingtocurrentdata,thenon-EuropeanUnionnationalitiesmostrepresentedinthiscityareEcuadorians,Moro-ccans,Columbians,Peruvians,Argentinians,Pakistanis,Chinese,Dominicans,andFilipinos(Institutd’Estad´ısticadeCatalunya,n.d.).How-ever,theproportionofimmigrantsinBarcelonavariesgreatlyaccordingtodistrict.IntheRavaldistrictinBarcelona’soldcity,wherethepresentstudywascarriedout,immigrantsconstituteal-most50%ofthepopulation,withPakistanis,Mo-roccans,Filipinos,andEcuadoriansbeingthelargestgroups,respectively.

Accordingtothe2004InformedePol´ıticaLing¨u´ıstica(SecretariadePol´ıticaLing¨u´ıstica),thenumberofforeign-bornstudentsenrolledinCatalonia’sschoolsgrewfrom9,868inatotalschoolpopulationof1,218,879inthe1991–1992academicyearto51,503inatotalof1,003,887studentsin2002–2003.Itwasestimatedthatbythe2005–2006academicyear,theimmigrantstu-dentpopulationinCataloniawouldbe10%ofthetotalateverystageofschooling,whichisneartheEuropeanaverage.Atschoolsindis-trictswithconcentrationsofimmigrants,thesefigurescanbeexpectedtobemuchhigher.Infact,inthesecondaryschoolinwhichthestudytookplace,about80%ofthestudentpopulationin2004wasofimmigrantbackground(Padr´os,Zaf´on,Funes,&Puig,2004).Suchconcentra-tionofimmigrantsincertaindistricts,andthespeedatwhichthesedemographicchangeshavetakenplace,createnewchallengesfortheeduca-tionalsysteminCatalonia,andforlanguageed-ucationspecifically.ThischallengeisespeciallypronouncedbecauseCataloniaisaregionwithtwoco-officiallanguages,CatalanandCastilianSpanish.

Catalan,theautochthonouslanguageofthere-gion,istheofficialmainlanguageoftheschoolsystem,owingtotheLlei7/1983,de18d’abril,denormalitzaci´oling¨u´ısticaaCatalunya(1990),which

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aimedatincreasingthepresenceofCatalanvis-`a-visSpanishinschools,andvariouseducational

reformsthatprescribedCatalanasthemainlan-guageforteachingandcommunication.Conse-quently,allsubjectsinpublicschools,exceptforSpanishliteratureandforeignlanguageclasses,aretaughtinCatalan.The2004Plaperalallen-guailacohesi´osocial(Departamentd’Educaci´o),furthermore,stipulatesthatCatalanshouldbethevehicleofsocialcohesioninCatalonia’smultilin-gualcontext.

However,accordingtothe2004InformedePol´ıticaLing¨u´ıstica(SecretariadePol´ıticaLing¨u´ıstica),althoughtherehavebeenfavorableandprogressiveresultsintheacquisitionandcom-mandofCatalanatalllevelsoftheschoolsystem,theresultsarelesspositiveinsecondaryschool.Furthermore,thereportnotedasignificantde-clineinthepresenceanduseofCatalanoutsidemainstreamacademiccontexts.ThisobservationiscorroboratedbycurrentdatafromtheInsti-tutd’EstadisticadeCatalunya(n.d.)showingthatCatalanisthefirstlanguageofonly31.91%ofthepopulationintheBarcelonametropolitanareaandof40.45%inthewholeofCatalonia.ThesedatasuggestthatitremainsaminoritylanguageincomparisontoSpanish.

Bernaus,Masgoret,Gardner,andReyes(2004)undertookastudyatthesamesecondaryschoolastheoneinvolvedinthepresentstudy,inwhichtheyassessedtherelevanceofthesocioeduca-tionalmodelofsecondlanguage(L2)acquisitionandtheAttitudeMotivationTestBattery(AMTB;Gardner,1985)totheCatalaneducationalset-ting.Ofparticularinterestweretherelationshipsamongmeasuresofattitudestowardandmotiva-tionforlearningthethreelanguagestaughtattheschool:Catalan,Spanish,andEnglish.Studentswhocamefromavarietyofculturalbackgroundshadmorepositiveattitudestoward,andweremoremotivatedtolearn,SpanishandEnglishthanCatalan,possiblybecauseoftheperceptionofhigherstatusforthefirsttwolanguagesthanforCatalan.

MOTIVATIONACQUISITION

INSECONDLANGUAGEManystudieshavedemonstratedthataffectivevariablesareimplicatedinL2acquisition.Sincethesecondhalfofthe20thcentury,differentap-proachestomeasuringthesevariableshavebeendeveloped(Cl´ement,1980,1986;D¨ornyei,2001;Gardner,1985;MacIntyre,1994;Noels,2001).Allthemeasurementsinvolvestudents’motivation,attitudes,andlanguageanxietytosomedegree,

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buttheydifferintheindicators,aswellasinthewordingofsomeoftheitemsusedtomeasurethem.

Gardner’s(1985)socioeducationalmodelofL2acquisitionseemedwellsuitedtoourresearchinterests.Accordingtothismodel,fiveaffec-tivevariablesinfluencetherelativesuccessastu-dentwillhaveinlanguagelearningintheschoolenvironment.GardnerdevelopedtheAMTBtoassessthesevariables.Motivationisconsideredpredominant,andthreescalesmeasureit:Moti-vationalIntensity,DesiretoLearntheLanguage,andAttitudesTowardLearningtheLanguage.Thesecondaffectivevariable,attitudestowardthelearningsituation,isassessedbytwomea-sures:LanguageCourseEvaluationandLanguageTeacherEvaluation.Thethirdvariable,integra-tiveness,isgaugedaccordingtothreemeasures:IntegrativeOrientation,InterestinForeignLan-guages,andAttitudesTowardtheOtherLan-guageCommunity.Ahighscoreforthesethreevariables(integrativeness,attitudestowardthelearningsituation,andmotivation)ishypothe-sizedtoreflectwhatisdescribedasintegrativemotivation.Thefourthvariable,instrumentality,ismeasuredintheAMTBbytheInstrumentalOri-entationScale.Thefifthvariable,languageanxi-ety,isnegativelyrelatedtomotivation,andisas-sessedbytwomeasuresintheAMTB:LanguageClassAnxietyandLanguageUseAnxiety.Cl´ement’s(1980,1986)modelofL2acquisitionisconcernedprimarilywiththebiculturalcontextandplacesconsiderableemphasisonafactorcon-ceptuallyrelatedtolanguageanxiety.Heproposesthatself-confidencewiththelanguagedevelopsthroughpositiveexperienceindirectcontactwiththetargetlanguagecommunity,andthatitisthemostimportantdeterminantofattitudeandef-fortexpendedtowardthelearningofthetargetlanguage.Cl´ement,D¨ornyei,andNoels(1994)arguedthatinamultiethniccontext,positiveat-titudesinclinethelearnertoseekcontactwiththeL2group.Ifsuchcontactispleasantandfre-quent,thelearnerwillhavelowanxiety,whichinturn,leadstogreaterachievementintheL2.TheroleofclassroomdynamicsandthelearningenvironmentisalsoimportanttomotivationandL2acquisitioninformalcontexts(Cl´ementetal.,1994;Gardner,1985,2005).

StudiesconductedinboththeCanadianandtheSpanishcontexts(Bernaus&Gardner,2004;Gardner,Masgoret,Tennant,&Mihic,2004)havesuggestedthatwhattakesplaceintheclassroomcanhaveastronginfluenceonstudents’atti-tudestowardthelearningsituationandpossiblyontheirmotivation.BernausandGardner,forex-ample,foundthatstudents’motivationtostudy

Englishandtheirattitudesrelatingtothelearningsituationbecamelesspositiveandtheiranxietyincreasedasthestudentsgrewolder.Theyre-portedthat“themereactofstudyinganotherlan-guageresultsindeclinesovertheacademicyearinintegrativeness,motivation,parentalencourage-ment,andininstrumentalorientation,andpos-siblyincreasesinlanguageanxietyregardlessoftheyearlevelofthestudent”(pp.14–15).Cham-bers(1999)drewsimilarconclusionsinreportingthatstudents’enthusiasmforlearningGermaninaU.K.foreignlanguagecontextdiminishedoverthecourseoftheirsecondaryschooling.Hefeltthattheteacherplaysthemostinfluentialroleinthisregardintheschoolcontext.IntheEn-glishasasecondlanguagecontextinHongKong,Fat(2004)alsoconsideredtheimportanceoftheclassroomenvironmenttoL2learning,andespe-ciallytheweightoftheteacherinraisinglearners’levelsofinterestandmotivation.

AlthoughgreatlyinfluencedbytheworkofGardnerandCl´ement,researchersinthe1990scalledforanexpansionofthemotivationalcon-structinL2learning.D¨ornyeiandOtt´o(1998),forexample,reachedtheconclusionthatnoneoftheexistingmodelsofmotivationwascompletelyadequatebecause,amongotherreasons,allthemodelsplayeddowntheimportanceofmotiva-tionalsourcesofexecutinggoal-directedbehav-ior,anddidnotdojusticetothedynamicnatureofmotivation.Forthisreason,D¨ornyeiandOtt´odevelopedtheprocessmodelofL2motivation,basedonHeckhausenandKuhl’s(1985)theoryofvolition.Themodelcontainstwodimensions,thefirstofwhichistheactionsequence,whichrepresents“thebehaviouralprocesswherebyini-tialwishes,hopesanddesiresarefirsttransformedintogoalsthenintointentions,leadingeventuallytoactionandhopefullytoaccomplishmentofthegoals,afterwhichtheprocessissubmittedtofi-nalevaluation”(p.47).Theseconddimensionofthismodelismotivationalinfluences,or“alltheenergysourcesandmotivationalforcesthatun-derlieandfuelthebehaviouralprocess”(p.47).Inthepresentstudy,variousconceptswereap-pliedfromthisprocessmodelofL2motivation,withaviewtowardcontributingtotheexplorationofmoreelaboratemodelsoflanguagelearningmotivation.

THEPRESENTSTUDY

Themainpurposeofthepresentstudywastoexploretherelationshipsamongmeasures,sug-gestedbyCl´ement(1986),D¨ornyei(2001),andGardner(1985),ofattitudes,motivation,andlan-guageanxiety,aswellasself-ratingsofproficiency

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inCatalaninagroupofmultilingualsecondaryschoolstudentslearningCatalanasanL2.Asec-ondarypurposewastoassesstheeffectsofyearlevelandcountryoforiginonthesevariousmea-suresaswellasonself-ratingsofproficiencyinSpanish.

Thespecificresearchquestionsthatthisstudyhopedtoanswerare:

1.Wheredothestudentsinthesamplecomefrom,howlonghavetheybeeninCatalonia,andwhatlanguagesdotheyspeakintheirday-to-daylives?

2.Howdoesastudent’syearlevelrelatetoaffectivevariablesandtoself-evaluationofCatalanandSpanishproficiency?

3.Howdoescountryoforiginrelatetotheindividualaffectivevariablesandtotheself-evaluationofCatalanandSpanish?

4.Howdotheaffectivemeasuresrelatetoeachother?Method

SchoolandClassroomEnvironment.Thepublicschoolwherethisresearchwascarriedoutissitu-atedinBarcelona’soldquarter.ThisareaismainlyinhabitedbynewcomerstoBarcelonafromnon-Europeancountrieswhomakeupalmost50%ofthepopulation.Pakistanis,Moroccans,Filipinos,andEcuadoriansarethelargestimmigrantgroups(Institutd’Estad´ıcticadeCatalunya,n.d.).

Thecharacteristicsofthedistrictwherethisschoolislocatedmeantthatmanyofthestu-dentshadlittlecontactwithCatalanoutsidetheclassroom.Attheschool,Catalanwasthelan-guageofinstructionthroughimmersionaswellasasubjectinthecurriculum,althoughmanystudentsusedSpanishorotherlanguagestocom-municateamongthemselves.SpanishandEnglishwerealsocompulsorysubjects.OurconversationswithstudentssuggestedthatsomestudentswerelesssatisfiedwiththeirCatalanteacherthanwiththeirSpanishteacher.Thislackofsatisfactionwas,accordingtothestudents,becausetheCatalanteacherpresentedlessonsinamoretraditionalwaythantheSpanishteachersandfocusedmoreonwrittenlanguageandgrammarskills,whereastheSpanishteachersputmoreemphasisonoralskillsandallowedmoretimeforstudentstoshareexperiencesandopinionsintheclassroom.Participants.Theparticipantsinthepresentstudywere178students(73femalesand105males)registeredinapublicsecondaryschoolinBarcelona(Spain).ThemajorityofthestudentshadnotbeenborninCataloniaandcouldbecon-sideredimmigrantstothearea.Theparticipants,

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whowereenrolledinthefirst4yearsofcompul-sorysecondaryeducation,rangedinagefrom12to17years(M=14.05).

Procedures.Aquestionnaireassessingthestu-dents’attitudes,motivation,andanxietyinrela-tiontolearningCatalanwasadministeredinthesecondtermoftheschoolyear,overaperiodofthreemornings,duringclasstime.Theques-tionnairewasadministeredinCatalanbythere-searchers,giventhatitwasthelanguageoftheschooland,therefore,thelanguagewethoughtthestudentswouldunderstandbestinthisaca-demicsituation.Thethreetestadministrators—whoamongthemspokeCatalan,Spanish,En-glish,Portuguese,andFrench—plustheclassteacher,wereintheclassroomtoaddressthestudents’doubtsrelatedtolanguagecomprehen-sion.Thestudentswereinformedthattherewerenocorrectresponsesandthattheirresponseswouldremainconfidentialandwouldnotbeshowntoanymemberoftheschoolstaff.Measures.Thequestionnairehadtwosections.Inthefirstsection,thestudentsprovideddemo-graphicinformationrelatingtogender,age,na-tionality,languagesspoken,exposuretoCatalanlanguageandculture,1literacyintheirhomelan-guage,timespentlivinginCatalonia,parents’nationality,levelofeducation,profession,andcontactwithCatalan.

Inaddition,thestudentsprovidedaself-evaluationofboththeirCatalanandSpanishpro-ficiencyinproductiveandreceptiveskills.Theyuseda5-pointscale,rangingfromverypoortoverygood,inrespondingtotwomeasures:self-ratingsofCatalanproficiencyandself-ratingsofSpanishproficiency.

Inthesecondsectionofthequestionnaire,thestudentsrespondedto64randomlyarrangeditemsrelatingtotheirattitudestowardandmoti-vationforlearningCatalan(thelanguageusedintheschoolcurriculum)andrelatedissues.TheitemswereadaptedfromscalesintheAMTB(Gardner,1985)andfromothersthatD¨ornyei(2001)andD¨ornyeiandOtt´o(1998)discussed.Therefore,theinstrumentusedtoassesstheaf-fectivevariables,includingscalesfromthesetwodifferentlanguagelearningmodels,wasinnova-tive.Bycombiningthesedifferentscales,weaimedtotestamoreelaboratemodeloflanguagelearn-ingmotivation.Studentsindicatedtheextenttowhichtheyagreedordisagreedwiththestate-mentsusinga5-pointscale:(1)Istronglydisagree,(2)Imoderatelydisagree,(3)Ineitheragreenordis-agree,(4)Imoderatelyagree,(5)Istronglyagree.Eachmeasurehadfouritems.Forallscales,exceptIntegrativeOrientationandInstrumental

Merc`eBernaus,EmileeMoore,andAdrianaCordeiroAzevedoOrientation,twooftheitemswerepositivelyworded,andtwowerenegativelyworded.Thescales,alongwiththeirCronbachαreliabilityco-efficients,anditemsappearintheAppendix.Inmanycases,thereliabilitycoefficientswereabitlowinmagnitude.Thisresultcouldhaveoccurredbecauseoftherelativelysmallnumberofitemsineachscalebecausethemagnitudeofsuchcoef-ficientsisinfluencedbythenumberofitems(asindicatedbytheSpearman-Browncorrectionforattenuation).Anotherexplanationisthatthestu-dentsmayhavehaddifficultiesinunderstandingthenegativelywordeditems.ResultsandDiscussion

Thefollowingfoursectionsprovideanswerstothefourresearchquestions.

WhereDotheStudentsintheSampleComeFrom,HowLongHaveTheyBeeninCatalonia,andWhatLanguagesDoTheySpeakinTheirDay-to-DayLives?AsindicatedintheMethodsection,thisstudywasconductedinaschoolinwhichthemajorityofthestudentswerefromimmigrantfamilies.Thema-jorityofthestudentswerefromSouthandCentralAmerica(n=53,29.8%),andfromAsiancoun-tries(n=51,28.7%).AlthoughthenextlargestgroupofstudentswasborninSpain(n=38,21.3%),mostofthestudentswerefromimmi-grantfamilies.ThesmallestsampleofstudentswasfromAfricancountries(n=34,19.1%).Twostu-dents(1.1%)werefromEuropeancountriesandwereexcludedfromtheanalysis.Clearly,therewasconsiderablediversityintheclassroomintermsoflanguageandculture,makingthisschoolasingu-larresearchcontext.

Themajorityofstudentshadarrivedquitere-centlyinCatalonia:20students(11.2%)hadbeenthereforlessthan1year,68(38.2%)hadbeenintheregionfrom1to3years,27(15.2%)hadbeen

TABLE1

Students’LanguageUseLanguageUseSituationWithMotherWithFatherWithSiblingsWithClassmatesOnthePlaygroundWithNeighbors

SpanishN=7944.6%N=8748.8%N=10257.2%N=15687.4%N=13978.0%N=14682.1%

CatalanN=31.7%N=42.4%N=42.4%N=95.2%N=10.6%N=168.9%

EnglishN=52.9%N=42.4%N=42.4%—N=10.6%—

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livinginCataloniafrom4to6years,and60stu-dents(33.7%)reportedbeingestablishedthereforover6years.Threestudents(1.7%)didnotreportthisinformation.CloseexaminationofthedataforyearlevelandlengthoftimeinCataloniaindicatedthatnewlyarrivedstudentswereinthelowergrades.

Table1presentsthereportedfrequencywithwhichstudentsusedthedifferentlanguagesinvariouscontexts.RelativelyfewstudentsreportedusingCatalanathome,whichwastobeexpectedinviewofthestudents’origins.ItiscuriousthattheparticipantsreportedsimilaruseofCatalanandEnglish(thefirstlanguageofsomestudentsfromAsiancountries)withtheirmothers,fathers,siblings,andtheirpeersintheplayground.ItisinterestingthatthelowestpercentageofCatalanusewasintheplaygroundandthehighestwaswithstudents’neighbors.EventhoughCatalanwasthecompulsorylanguageatschool,fewstu-dentsreportedusingitininteractionwitheachotheroutsidetheclassroom.InspiteofknowingbothCatalanandSpanish,thelanguagethatstu-dentsuseisSpanishbecausethislanguageisstillthemajoritylanguageintheirneighborhoods.Afro-Asianlanguagesreportedlywereprevalentinstudents’neighborhoods,intheplayground,andespeciallyatstudents’homes.

HowDoesaStudent’sYearLevelRelatetoAffectiveVariablesandtoSelf-EvaluationofCatalanandSpan-ishProficiency?Offurtherinterestwaswhetheryearlevelandculturalbackgroundhaveeffectsontheattitudes,motivation,andlanguageanxietymeasuresaswellasontheself-ratingsoflanguagecompetence.Todeterminewhetherthiswasthecase,weconducteda4×4multivariatefacto-rialdesignanalysisofvarianceforwhichthetwofactorswereyearlevel(1,2,3,and4)andcoun-tryoforigin(Spain,SouthandCentralAmerica,

Afro-AsianLanguagesN=9150.9%N=8346.4%N=6838.0%N=137.5%N=3720.8%N=168.9%

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Africa,andAsia),whichresultedin19variables.Significantmultivariateeffectsemergedforyearlevel,Pillaisstatistic=.533,F(57,396)=1.501,p<.015,andcountryoforigin,Pillaisstatistic=.647,F(57,396)=1.911,p<.0004,butnotfortheinteractionbetweenyearlevelandcountryoforigin.

Follow-upunivariatetestsrevealedthatyearlevelhadasignificanteffectoneightvariables.TheF-ratiosfortheunivariatetestsforbothyearlevelandcountryoforiginhad3degreesoffree-dominthenumeratorand164inthedenomina-tor.Foreachsignificanteffect,posthoccontrastsofmeansweremadeusingtheBonferroniproce-dure.ThesignificanteffectforattitudestowardCatalanpeople,F=3.803,p<.012,revealedthatGrade1studentshadmorefavorableattitudesto-wardCatalanpeoplethanGrade4students(M=3.86vs.3.22onthe5-pointscale).Thesignificanteffectforintegrativeorientation,F=5.413,p<.001,occurredbecauseGrade1studentsweresig-nificantlyhigheronintegrativeorientation(3.61)thaneitheroftheGrade2(2.95),3(2.78)orGrade4(2.82)studentswhodidnotdiffersignif-icantlyfromeachother.ThemeasureofCatalanteacherevaluationrevealedasignificanteffect,F=3.447,p<.018.Grade2studentshadsignif-icantlylessfavorableattitudes(3.28)towardtheCatalanteacherthandidGrade3students(4.03).Althoughtheeffectformotivationalintensitywassignificant,F=3.570,p<.016,noneofthemeansdifferedsignificantlyfromeachother.Thesig-nificanteffectforparentalencouragement,F=3.877,p<.011,indicatedthatGrade1studentsratedtheirparentsasmoresupportive(4.07)thandidtheGrade4students(3.23).AsignificantF-ratiowasalsoobtainedforexecutivemotiva-tionalinfluences,F=3.873,p<.011,andtestsofmeansindicatedthattheGrade1stu-dentswerehigher(4.17)onexecutivemotiva-tionalinfluencesthaneithertheGrade3(3.52)orGrade4(3.50)students,whodidnotdiffersignificantlyfromeachother.Thesignificantef-fectforpostactionalevaluation,F=3.257,p<.023,revealedthatGrade1studentswerehigher(3.74)onpostactionalevaluationthanGrade3students(3.20).Finally,thesignificanteffectforclassanxiety,F=4.607,p<.004,indicatedthatGrade1studentswereloweronthemeasureofclassanxiety(2.13)thaneitherGrade2(2.74)orGrade4(2.74)students.Norelationshipwasfoundbetweenthestudents’yearlevelandtheirself-assessmentsinCatalanandSpanish.HowDoesCountryofOriginRelatetotheIndivid-ualAffectiveVariablesandtotheSelf-EvaluationofCatalanandSpanish?Examinationoftheeffect

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ofcountryoforiginshowedsignificanteffectsforonlyfourofthevariables,integrativeorientation,F=4.657,p<.004,self-ratingsofCatalan,F=3.910,p<.002,self-ratingsofSpanish,F=11.373,p<.0004,andclassanxiety,F=3.290,p<.022.PosthocBonferronitestsofthemeansindicatedthat(a)theAsianstudentsweremoreintegrativelyoriented(3.36)thanthestudentsfromSouthandCentralAmerica(2.72);(b)thestudentsfromSpainratedtheirCatalanskillmorehighly(4.43)thandidthestudentsfromSouthandCentralAmerica(3.99);and(c)thestudentsfromAsiaratedtheirSpanish(4.19)lowerthandidthestu-dentsfromSpain(4.80),SouthandCentralAmer-ica(4.77),andAfrica(4.68)whodidnotdiffersignificantlyamongthemselves.Africanstudentsreportedlowerlevelsofclassanxiety(2.25)thandidstudentsfromSouthandCentralAmerica(2.79).

Theseresultsindicatethatyearlevelhadasub-stantialeffectonmanyofthemeasures,afindingthatisconsistentwithotherresearch(see,e.g.,Gardner,1985;Bernaus&Gardner,2004).Coun-tryoforigin,however,hadrelativelylittleeffect.Whatisclearisthattherewasverylittledifferenceamongthegroupsdefinedbycountryoforiginonthevariousmeasures.

HowDotheAffectiveMeasuresRelatetoEachOther?Asindicatedintheintroduction,onema-jorpurposeofthisinvestigationwastostudytherelationshipsamongtheaffectivevariablescon-cernedwithlearningCatalan.Giventherelativelackofrelationshipsbetweenthesemeasuresandcountryoforiginandtheclearrelationshipsbe-tweentheaffectivevariablesandyearlevel,afac-toranalysisofthemeasuresthatignoredcountryoforiginbutincludedyearlevelwasconducted.Aprincipalcomponentsanalysisyieldedfivefactorsaccountingfor60.88%ofthetotalvariance.Thesefactorswererotatedbymeansofthevarimaxpro-cedure.TherotatedfactormatrixispresentedinTable2.

Factor1showedloadingsgreaterthan±.40for10variables,andaccountedfor25.80%ofthetotalvariance.ThemajorityofthevariableswereadaptationsfromGardner’s(1985)AMTB.TwovariablesassessedGardner’sconstructofIn-tegrativeness(attitudestowardCatalanpeopleandintegrativeorientation),2variablesindexedAttitudesTowardtheLearningSituation(atti-tudestowardtheteacherandattitudestowardtheclass),and3variablesassessedMotivation(moti-vationalintensity,attitudestowardlearningCata-lan,anddesiretolearnthelanguage).Inaddition,highloadingswerealsoobtainedfromtwoothermeasuresadaptedfromGardner(i.e.,parental

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TABLE2

RotatedComponentMatrixonAttitudeandMotivationMeasures

Component

AttitudeandMotivationMeasures

YearLevel

AttitudesTowardCatalanPeopleIntegrativeOrientation

InterestinForeignLanguagesCatalanTeacherEvaluationCatalanClassEvaluationMotivationalIntensity

AttitudesTowardLearningCatalanDesiretoLearnCatalanCatalanClassAnxietyCatalanUseAnxiety

InstrumentalOrientationParentalEncouragement

MotivationalInfluencesonIntentionFormationMotivationalInfluencesonIntentionEnactmentExecutiveMotivationalInfluencesPostactionalEvaluation

ExposuretoCatalanLanguageandCultureCatalanTotalMean

1−.119.645.640.184.439.705.531.751.807−.054−.298.786.741−.059.141.719.142−.071.018

2−.103−.028.175.053.162.221.449.088.104−.752−.682.052.057.182.126.028−.074−.027.662

3−.002−.089−.123.815.039−.001.148.144.070−.044−.204.201.059.366.792.171.100−.121.074

4−.098.300.123.066.586.401.063−.213.172−.340.001.084−.019.184−.039.214.795.078−.298

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5.654−.327−.427.042.312.079.216−.038−.033.045.183−.018−.089−.281−.079−.106−.192.693−.088

encouragement,instrumentalorientation)andoneadaptedfromD¨ornyei(2001;i.e.,execu-tivemotivationalinfluences).Thedominantfea-tureofthisfactorwasthatitisconsistentwithGardner’sconceptofintegrativemotivation.Onlyonescalefromthatclusterdidnotloadonthisfactor—interestinforeignlanguages.Itisnotclearwhythisvariabledidnotloadonthefac-tor,butitnonethelessseemsbesttoidentifyitasanintegrativemotivefactor,consistentwithmanyfindingsreportedbyGardnerandhisassociates.Asinthosestudies,theintegrativemotiveprovedinthisstudytobeassociatedwithapositiveper-ceptionofparentalencouragementtolearnthelanguage,aswellaswithahighinstrumentalori-entation.Itshouldalsobenotedthatinthisstudy,themeasureofexecutivemotivationalinfluencesbasedonD¨ornyei’smodelwasstronglyassociatedwiththeconceptofintegrativemotivation.

Factor2hadhighloadingsforfourmeasuresandaccountedfor9.80%ofthetotalvariance.Twoofthevariables(motivationalintensityandself-ratingofCatalan)hadpositiveloadings;twoothers(classanxietyanduseanxiety)hadneg-ativeloadings.Thatis,studentswhoratedtheirCatalanlanguageknowledgehighlyreportedthattheyexpendedconsiderableeffortlearningCata-lanandhadlowlevelsofanxietybothinsideandoutsidetheclassroom.Thisfindingsuggestsaclearpositivelinkbetweenself-evaluationoflanguageproficiencyandmotivationandaneg-ativelinkwithlanguageanxiety.ThispatternisconsistentwithCl´ement’sconceptualizationofself-confidencewiththelanguage(Cl´ement,1980,1986)andthuswarrantedthelabelself-confidencewiththelanguage.

TwovariableshadhighloadingsonFactor3,whichaccountedfor8.7%ofthetotalvari-ance.Thesetwomeasureswereinterestinfor-eignlanguagesandmotivationalinfluencesontheinitiationofintentionenactment.Accord-ingtoD¨ornyeiandOtt´o(1998),“Actionengage-mentcanbecomparedtocrossingametaphorical‘Rubicon’:theindividualhascommittedhim-self/herselftoactionandnowtheemphasisshiftstofactorsconcerningtheimplementationofac-tion”(p.50).Thisfactorshowsarelationshipbetweenintentionenactmentandinterestinfor-eignlanguages.Studentsinterestedinforeignlan-guageswerealsoreadytostartandtoparticipateactivelyintheirownprocessoflanguagelearning.Becausetherewereonlytwovariablesdefiningthisfactor,anyinterpretationrequirescaution.Itseemsmeaningfulthatindividualswhocom-mitthemselvestolearnanotherlanguagewouldhaveahighdegreeofinterestinlanguages,butthenegativereliabilitycoefficientformotivationalinfluencesontheintentionenactmentmakesitdifficulttoplacetoomuchconfidenceinanyinterpretation.

242

ThreevariablesloadedonFactor4,whichac-countedfor8.6%ofthetotalvariance:Catalanteacherevaluation,Catalanclassevaluation,andpostactionalevaluation.AccordingtoD¨ornyei(2001),“Post-actionalevaluationhasanimpor-tantroleindeterminingthelearner’ssenseofsuc-cess,achievementandsatisfaction,whichwilltheninfluencehowtheyapproachsubsequentlearningtasks”(p.99).Forthefactorusedinthecurrentstudy,itappearsthatsuchevaluationoccurredpri-marilyforthosestudentswhohadfavorableatti-tudestowardtheCatalanteacherandtheCatalanclass.Thisfindingmightsuggestthatthelearner’ssenseofsuccess,achievement,andsatisfactionismediatedbyschoolteacherswhenthelanguageislearnedinaclassroom.

ThevariablesloadingonFactor5(whichac-countedfor8.1%ofthetotalvariance)werestu-dents’exposuretoCatalanlanguageandculture,integrativeorientation,andschool-yearlevel.Incontrasttotheyoungerstudents,thestudentsinhigherschool-yearlevelsreportedthattheyandtheirparentshadCatalanfriends,watchedCata-lanTVchannels,andcelebratedsomeofthetra-ditionalCatalanfestivitiesathome.Althoughthisfindingmayappearinconsistentwiththenegativeloadingforintegrativeorientationonthisfactor,itshouldbenotedthatintheanalysisofvariancereportedearlier,themeanscoresforintegrativeorientationtendedtodecreaseasyearlevelin-creased,aswasalsothecaseinotherstudies(cf.,Gardner,1985).Thus,thenegativeloadingheremightsimplyreflectthistrend.

TheresultsofthefactoranalysisweresimilartothosereportedbyGardnerandassociates(cf.,Gardner,1985,2005).Factor1showedcommon-alityamongmanyoftheattitudeandmotivationalvariables,whichsuggestedthatattitudestowardthelearningsituation,integrativeness,andmo-tivationwereinterrelated,inadditiontobeingconsistentwiththeconceptofanintegrativemo-tive.Factor2revealedthatself-confidencewasorthogonaltothisclusterofattitudeandmoti-vationvariables,butitalsoincludedamotiva-tionalcomponent.ThisfindingwasconsistentwiththesocioeducationalmodelofL2acquisi-tion(Gardner,1985)andwiththesocialcon-textmodel(Cl´ement,1980,1986).Itmightbebeneficialtoinvestigatethepossiblecomponentsoftheremainingfactorsbydevelopingmeasuresthatcouldhelptodefinethemmorefully.Iffu-tureresearchcouldfurtherilluminatethepossi-blecompositionoffactors,suchaspostactionalevaluation,intentionenactment,andexposuretolanguageandculture,itwouldbeanimportantdevelopment.Inparticular,clarificationofexpo-

TheModernLanguageJournal91(2007)

suretolanguageandculturecouldproveusefulinsettingswheremultilingualismexistsintheclass-room.Itisalsopossiblethattheotherfactorsidentifiedinthisstudymightbeattributabletothemultilingualnatureofthesample.Althoughtheanalysisofvariancerevealedthattheethnicgroupsdifferedsignificantlyonlyforintegrativeorientation,classanxiety,andtheself-ratingsofCatalanandSpanishproficiency,themultilingualnatureoftheclassroomcouldhavehadanin-fluenceontherelationshipsamongalltheaffec-tivemeasures.Ithasbeenourexperiencethatthedynamicsofthoseclassroomsaredifferentfromthoseofregularclasses;hence,multilingualclassesdeservefurtherresearch.CONCLUSIONS

Theuniquenessofthepresentstudyisthatitinvestigatedmultilingualstudents’attitudesandmotivationtowardlearningCatalanand,asacon-sequence,raisedmanyimportantquestionsthat,inturn,suggestfurtherinterestingissueswor-thyofinvestigation.Furthermore,thisstudywasuniqueinthattheinstrumentusedtoassesstheaffectivevariablesincludedscalesfromtwodif-ferentlanguagelearningmodels(D¨ornyei,2001;Gardner,1985),acombinationthathadnotbeenusedbefore.

Drawingonthesetwoscales,thecurrentstudyhadseveralnotablefindings.Onefindingrelatestothediscrepancybetweenpolicyandpractice.Despitebeinganofficiallanguage,aswellastheschoollanguageinCatalonia,CatalancontinuestobeaminoritylanguageincomparisontoSpan-ish,asdemonstratedbythestudents’reportedlanguageuseinthisstudy.Second,thereweredif-ferencesattributabletostudents’yearlevel,whichsupportedpreviousfindings.Attitudesandmoti-vationtendedtodecreaseandlanguageanxietytendedtoincreaseasyearlevelincreased.Thethirdfindingisthatcountryoforiginhadrela-tivelylittleeffectonthemeanlevelofmostoftheaffectivemeasures,showingonlysmalleffectsonintegrativeorientationandclassanxiety.Finally,therelationshipsamongthevariousaffectivevari-ableswerecomparabletothosefromotherstudies(Gardner,1985,2005),althoughthereweresomeimportantdifferencesinvolvingafewvariables.Theresultsofthecurrentstudyofferanim-portantcontributiontothemotivationalresearchfieldgiventhatfewpreviousstudieshaveinvolvedplurilingualstudentsinaregionwheretwooffi-ciallanguagescoexistintheschoolsyllabi.Thesocialcomplexityofthislanguagesituationinflu-encesstudents’attitudesandmotivationtoward

Merc`eBernaus,EmileeMoore,andAdrianaCordeiroAzevedo243

learninglanguages.TheCatalanexperiencecanprovideimportantinsightsforprofessionalswork-inginothermultilingualeducationalcontextsaroundtheworldandsuggestsdirectionsforfur-therresearchandcomparisonacrosscontexts.Futurestudiesshouldcontinuetoexaminestu-dents’attitudestowardandmotivationtolearnlanguagesinthisandothermultilingualeduca-tionalcontextsbydeterminingwhethertherearedifferencesintheattitudinalandmotivationalelementsrelatedtolearninglanguagesbetweenmonolingualandbilingualorplurilinguallearn-ers.Suchstudiescouldrevealwhetherthisfactorplaysaspecificroleinshapingaffectiveresponsestolanguagelearningwithinmultilingualcommu-nities.

Researchshouldcontinuetoinvestigatetheteacher’sinfluenceonstudentmotivationandat-titudestowardlanguagelearning.Aswehaveob-servedinthepresentstudy,thestudents’attitudestowardtheclassandtheteacherrelatedtomanyoftheaffectivevariablesandcontributedtotwoofthefivefactorsthatemerged.Suchresultssuggestthatitwouldbeprofitabletoconductfurtherre-searchinvolvingalargernumberofteachersandtoattempttoinvestigatehowactionsandbeliefsoftheteachersrelatetoaffectivecharacteristicsoftheirstudents.SuchastudyiscurrentlyunderwayinCataloniain52schools.Ethnographicresearchthatprovidesaqualitativeaccountofclassroomdynamicsandotherissues,suchasthesocialcon-structionofidentity,couldalsobevaluable.

Finally,attentionshouldalsobepaidtotheamountofcontactnewlyarrivedstudentshavewiththelanguageandcultureofthehostcommu-nity,especiallyinareassuchasthisone,inwhichthereisahighconcentrationofimmigrants.Thissuggestiongoesbeyondtheschoolsetting,andhighlightstheneedforactionatthecommunitylevel.Moreover,theinfluenceofthestatusofboththetargetlanguageandthestudents’firstlanguages,onstudents’attitudes,motivation,andmultilingualcompetence,isanarearequiringfur-therresearch.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Theauthorswouldliketothanktothedirector,theteachers,andthestudentsattheMiquelTarradellsec-ondaryschoolinBarcelona,withoutwhosecontribu-tionthisstudycouldnothavebeencarriedout.WealsothanktheMinisteriodeAsuntosExteriores—AgenciaEspa˜noladeCooperaci´onInternacionalandthePro-gramaBolsasdeAltoNiveldelaUnionEuropeapara

AmericaLatinaforthegeneroussupporttheyprovidedtotwooftheresearchers.

Wewouldliketothankthereviewersfortheirvalu-ablecommentsandsuggestionsontheearlierdraftsofthisarticle.WealsowouldliketogivespecialthankstoRobertGardnerforhiswisecommentsontheearlierdrafts.

NOTE

1

Thismeasurecontainsthefollowingitems:Mypar-entshaveCatalanfriends,IhaveCatalanfriends,IwatchCatalanTVchannelsathome,IhaveCatalanliteratureathome,WecelebrateCatalantraditionsandCatalanfestivitieswithmyfamily.

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APPENDIX

AttitudeandMotivationMeasures

ThefollowingaretheitemsintheattitudeandmotivationmeasuresadaptedfromGardner(1985):1.AttitudesTowardCatalanPeople(α=.61)Catalanpeoplearetrustworthy.Catalanpeopletreatmewell.Catalanpeopleareverycold.Catalanpeopleareunpleasant.2.IntegrativeOrientation(α=.67)

IwanttomakeCatalanfriends.IaminterestedinCatalanculture.

IwouldliketoliveinCataloniamywholelife.IwouldliketothinklikeCatalanpeople.3.InterestinForeignLanguages(α=.54)

Knowinglanguagesisnotimportantforme.

Iwouldliketobeabletocommunicatewithpeoplefromothercountriesintheirlanguage.Ihavelittleinterestinlearningotherlanguages.Ilikelearninglanguages.

4.CatalanTeacherEvaluation(α=.69)

IlikemyCatalanteacher.

MyCatalanteachermakestheclassesunattractive.

Merc`eBernaus,EmileeMoore,andAdrianaCordeiroAzevedo

MyCatalanteacherencouragesmetolearn.

IwouldprefertohaveadifferentCatalanteacher.5.MyCatalanClassEvaluation(α=.67)IlikemyCatalanclass.

MyCatalanclassesareoflittleinterest.MyCatalanclassisawasteoftime.IlearnalotinmyCatalanclass.6.MotivationalIntensity(α=.48)

IdoallofmyCatalanhomework.

IpaylittleattentioninmyCatalanclass.ImakeanefforttolearnCatalan.

ItuneoutwhenIdon’tunderstandsomethinginmyCatalanclass.7.AttitudesTowardLearningCatalan(α=.64)

IwouldprefertolearnotherthingsinsteadofCatalan.LearningCatalanisawasteoftime.LearningCatalanisworthit.IlikelearningCatalan.

8.DesiretoLearnCatalan(α=.62)

KnowingCatalanhaslittleimportanceforme.IhavelittledesiretocontinuelearningCatalan.IwouldliketolearnasmuchCatalanasIcan.IwouldliketohavemoretimetostudyCatalan.9.MyCatalanClassAnxiety(α=.38)

IamcalmwhenIhavetoanswertheteacherinmyCatalanclass.IgetembarrassedifIdon’texpressmyselfwellinCatalaninclass.IfeelsecurewhenImustreadoutloudinmyCatalanclass.IgetnervouswhenImustspeakCatalaninfrontofmypeers.10.CatalanUseAnxiety(α=.53)

245

IfeelcomfortablewhenIspeakCatalanwithCatalanpeople.

IfeelcalmifIhavetoaskforsomethinginCatalanwhenIgoshopping.

IfeelcomfortablewhenspeakingCatalanoutsideofschoolwithpeoplewhospeakbothCatalanandSpanish.IgetnervouswhenIhavetospeakCatalanoutsideofclass.11.InstrumentalOrientation(α=.76)

StudyingCatalanwillhelpmetogetabettereducation.

StudyingCatalanwillhelpmetogetbettermarksinothersubjects.StudyingCatalanwillhelpmetoimprovemysituationinCatalonia.StudyingCatalanwillhelpmetogetagoodjobinthefuture.12.ParentalEncouragement(α=.80)

MyparentsencouragemetolearnCatalan.

MyparentsareinterestedinwhatIdoinmyCatalanclass.MyparentsinsistthatitisveryimportanttolearnCatalan.

MyparentstellmethatImustalwaysdomyCatalanhomework.

ThefollowingaretheitemsintheattitudeandmotivationmeasuresadaptedfromD¨ornyeiandOtt´o(1998)andD¨ornyei(2001a):

13.MotivationalInfluencesonIntentionFormation(α=–.56)Note:Thisnegativereliabilitycoefficientresulted

becausethestudentsappearednottounderstandsomeitems.Theitemswerekeyedproperly,butthestudents’responseswereveryinconsistent.

IneedtoknowCatalanrightaway.

IhavefewopportunitiestospeakinCatalan.IcouldalwaysdomoretolearnCatalan.NormallyIamsuccessfulwithlanguages.

246TheModernLanguageJournal91(2007)

14.MotivationalInfluencesontheInitiationofIntentionEnactment(α=.31)

IhaveproblemssettingmyselfdowntostudyCatalan.IwilllearnlittleCatalanevenifImakeabigeffort.

IwillachievelearningCatalanasIalwaysachievemygoals.NotlearningCatalanwillbringmetrouble.15.ExecutiveMotivationalInfluences(α=.61)

IamtiredoflearningCatalan.

IfIstoppedstudyingCatalanitwouldn’tmatter.IknowmoreandmoreCatalaneachday.

IwanttolearnCatalantomakemyparentsandteachershappy.16.PostactionalEvaluation(α=.33)

ThecommentstheteachergivesmeafteranexamhelpmetoimprovemyCatalan.WhenIdon’tgetthemarkIwouldlikeinCatalanit’smyownfault.WhenIgetabadmarkinmyCatalanclassIdon’tgetdiscouraged.

WhenIdon’tgetthemarkIwantit’sbecausetheteacherexpectstoomuch.

CallforContributions:2008AAUSCVolume

TheAmericanAssociationofUniversitySupervisors,Coordinators,andDirectorsofForeignLanguagePrograms(AAUSC)ispleasedtoannounceits2008volume.

ConceptionsofL2Grammar:TheoreticalApproachesandtheirApplicationintheL2ClassroomCo-Editors:JohannaWatzinger-Tharp&StaceyKatz,UniversityofUtahSeriesEditor:CarlBlyth,UniversityofTexasatAustin

Thevolumewillfocusontheoreticalapproachestogrammarandhowtheyrelatetotheteachingandlearningofgrammarandtolanguageprogramdevelopment.Contributionsshouldestablishastronglinkbetweentheoryandpractice.Practiceincludes,butisnotlimitedto,articulation,assessment,classroomculture,curriculumandmaterialsdevelopment,andteachereducation.InkeepingwiththemissionoftheAAUSC,thevolumeseekstopresentawidevarietyoflanguagesandperspectives,andaddressabroadrangeofscholarsandpractitioners.SuggestionsforPossibleTopics

1.Use-andusage-basedconceptualizationsofgrammar,forexamplecognitive,corpus-based,discourse-based,sociocultural,systemic-functional,andvariationist.2.Criticalassessmentofcurrenttheoreticalframeworksforteachinggrammar,forexampleprocessinginstruction,enhancedinput,andfocusonform.

3.Conceptionsofgrammarandgrammarinstructioninrelationtolanguageawarenessasmanifestedin,forexample,consciousness-raisingactivitiesandmetatalk.

4.Theuseofmetalanguageandmetaphorstoconceptualizegrammarforthelearners.5.Theroleofgrammartheoryandpracticeincontent-,theme-,andtask-basedinstruction.

6.Experimentalstudiesthatmeasureknowledgeanduseofgrammaticalforms,includingphonological(segmentalandsuprasegmental),morphological,andsyntacticfeatures.

7.Differenttypesofgrammarandtheirapplicationtotheclassroom,forexampledescriptive,prescriptive,pedagogical,andhybridgrammars.

8.Theroleoflanguageprogramdevelopersanddirectorsinshapingtheroleofgrammarinthecurriculum.PotentialcontributorsshouldsubmitabstractstobotheditorsbyMay1,2007;theywillreceivefeedbackbyJune1,2007.Thetentativedeadlineforfull-lengthmanuscriptsisSeptember15,2007,withfinalrevisionsduebyMarch15,2008.

Pleasedirectinquiriestobotheditors:

JohannaWatzinger-Tharp:j.tharp@utah.eduStaceyKatz:skatz@hum.utah.edu