English lexicology studies English words in different aspects and from different angles. • Naturalists (自然派)—there is a natural connection between the sound and meaning
of words. • Conventionalists (习惯派)—sound-meaning connection is a kind of linguistic social
contract.
• Define “word”
• • • •
A form that can function alone in a sentence.A unit of meaning; A sound unity;
A minimal free form of a language
• Origin of English Words见书5
• Native words 本族词Anglo-Saxon words • Borrowed words / loan words 外来词
• What features do these words have?
• • • • •
Form the basic stock of English language most frequently used
Denote the commonest things necessary for life Acquired earliest by children
Denote the most basic things in language
• Morphological Structure and Word Formation 见本
• Morpheme ；the smallest meaningful unit in a language.
• Affix；a form that is attached to a morpheme to modify meaning or function.
• Root；the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. • Word and Vocabulary
• In order to improve my reading comprehension ability, I need to enlarge my ________. learn more ________.
• Vocabulary
• • • • • • • • • •
The total number of the words in a language. All the words used in a particular period. All the words of a given dialect. All the words possessed by a person. All the words of a given discipline.
Form the basic stock of English language most frequently used
Denote the commonest things necessary for life Acquired earliest by children
Denote the most basic things in language
• Features of native words
• Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary
基本词汇和非基本词汇-----The common core of the language.
如
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• • • • • • • • • • • • •
Rain, snow, fire, water, sun, moon, spring, summer, wind, hill; Head, foot, hand, face, father, mother, son Apple, tree, horse, cow, cat, dog, sheep Come, go, eat, beat, carry, old, young One, ten, hundred, I, you, who, but, as, till Characteristics of Basic Word Stock All national character 全民性 Stability 稳定性 Productivity 能产性 Polysemy 多义性
Nonbasic Vocabulary 非基本词汇
Terminology 术语 technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic ares Jargon 行话specialized words used by members of particular arts sciences, trades and professions among themselves • slang 俚语 sub-standard words • argot黑话 jargon of criminals
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
The word ‘limitless’ contains two _____. A. affixes B. roots
C. morphemes
Which of the following is not true? A word is the smallest form of language A word is a sound unity. A word has a given meaning.
A word can be used freely in a sentence.
According to semanticists, a word is a unit of ______. A. sounds B. meaning C. form D. function
A word is a _____ that stands for something else in the world. A. symbol B. system C. structure D. pattern Word formation:
affixation 词缀法The process by which words are formed by adding affixes to a root 。（Prefixation 前缀法，Suffixation 后缀法）例见本 Prefixation 前缀法 见本 Suffixation 后缀法 eer, (engineer, profiteer) ess, (hostess, priestess ) ette, (cigarette, kitchenette) let, (booklet, leaflet) age, (mileage, wastage)
dom, (kingdom, officialdom) ery, (slavery, machinery) hood, (childhood, manhood)
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• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • •
• •
ing, (farming) ism, (terrorism)
ship, (friendship, sportsmanship) ant, (assistant, informant) ee, (employee, trainee)
ent, (respondent, dependent) er,or, (worker, translator, ) al, (dismissal, survival)
ance, (attendance, performance ) tion, sion, (protection, decision) ence, (existence, correspondence) ment, (movement, judgement) ity, (popularity, activity) ness, (happiness, largeness) ese, (Japanese, Lebanese) an, (Australian, Elizabethan) ist, (socialist, violinist)
Conversion 转类法A method of using words of one part of speech as those of a different part of speech.
Noun attribute见 书21Danger zone 危险区Depth charge 深水炸弹A department decision 部门作出的决定Impulse buying 凭一时的冲动买东西 Noun to verb, verb to noun见书22-26The newspapers headlined his long record of accomplishments.He was admitted to the university after a three-year wait.This film is a remake.
Adjective to noun，书31-34 Partial conversion，Complete conversion（ We can’t stomach such a insult.
Robert Acheson roomed right next to me. He wolfed down his lunch. I’m one of his familiars. Poor innocents!
The engineers ahed and ouched at the new machines. He Hamleted the chance and then regretted for it. These shoes were an excellent buy.
They lifted the rifles and hit him in the small of the back.） Composition/Compounding见书34-44A process of word-formation by which two or more independent words are put together to make one word.（Compound nounCompound adjectiveCompound verb） Well-balanced 平衡了的Dog-eat-dog 狗咬狗的Cross-question 盘问 Blending 拼缀法 见书41--46The method of forming a word by combining parts of other words.
• Three stylistic types of Blending 见书46-48
• Slang or make-shift words
• infanticipating--infant+anticipating • Words for science and technology
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• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • biorhythm—biological+rhythm lidar—light and radar 激光雷达 Words used in mass media
dawk—dove and hawk 中间立场的 Back Formation 逆构法 见书49--52 Clipping 书53--55
Initialism 首字母连接词 书55--56VOA WTO YZU CCTV Acronym 首字母拼音词NASA AIDS Radar UESCO Laser The development of the English Vocabulary From synthetic to analytic language从综合型语言到分析型语言 Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary 当代英语词汇的发展 Reasons for new words: 为什么需要新词 To express new things and new changes To arouse public attention and interest
Main sources of new words: 新词所属领域 Science and technology
Economic and political changes
Influence of other cultures and languages
Modes of Vocabulary Development 词汇的发展方式
Creation 创词– formation of new words by using existing materials such as roots, affixes and other elements.
Semantic changes 旧词新义– an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need.
Borrowing借词—absorbing words from foreign languages Reviving archaic or obsolete words古词和废弃词复活
Motivation 词的理据Onomatopoeic motivation 拟声理据 Semantic motivation 语义理据 （figurative sense） Morphological motivation 形态理据 Etymological motivation 词源理据
Onomatopoeic motivation 拟声理据 见书60
• Primary onomatopoeia 基本拟声 • The imitation of sound by sound.
• Here the sound is truly “an echo to the sense”.
• Secondary Onomatopoeia
• Certain sounds and sound sequences are associated with certain senses in an expressive
relationship. （breath noise; quick separation or movement; creeping: Duplicated words or phrases 例见书） • • • • •
Phil- He is a famous philanthropist.
The funds are distributed among various philanthropies. This piece was played by the Royal Philharmonic Society. Large amount of thermophilic bacteria grew in this room.
Phobi-Acrophobia 恐高症Hydrophobia Aviophobia School phobia
• Ever since the accident, he had photophobia which he never got rid of. • A misanthropist can never become a philanthropist.
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• Anthony almost fainted when he saw the list of courses this term: anthropography,
anthropogenesis, anthropometrics…
• Cult—till 耕作Culture (-ure—the acto or result of …) • --tilling or the result of tilling 耕作或栽培的结果 • Cultivate—make capable of being tilled. • --cultivate the soil; cultivate the habit; cultivate talents • I bought some honey from Tom the apiculturist in our village.
• My aunt became interested in floriculture and got a lot of seeds and pots in her garage. • My hometown has lots of rivers and pools, so I wonder why aquaculture is not developed
here. • I have no culture, I can not give you a prescription. • Cultivation of bacteria 细菌培养
• Floris花卉 floriculture
• Pisces-双鱼座 鱼类养殖: • Arboris-tree 树木栽培: • Avis-bird 鸟类饲养: • Pomum-fruit 果树栽培: • Agri,agro— field 农田,田地 • Agriculture
• Agrimotor农用拖拉机 • Agronomy农学,农艺学 • Agronomist农学家 • Agrology农业土壤学 • Agrobiology农业生物学 • Agrotechnique农业技术 • Agrochemicals农药 • agrestic乡间的, 田野的
• Semantic motivation 语义理据 （figurative sense） 见书62加本• Metaphor
• Synecdoche 提喻 • Metonymy 借代 • Analogy 类比
• Cac (vacare—L.to be empty)
Are there any rooms vacant in this hotel? • We need someone to fill the vacancy.
• Many families use vacuum cleaner instead of mops or brooms. • Before the hurricane comes we need to evacuate the city. • The post vacated was filled by him • Vac Vacant • Vacancy • Vacate • Vacation • Vacationer • Vacationist •
Vacationland
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• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Vacation home Vacation job
evacuate After surrendering, the soldiers evacuated the fort. They were ordered to evacuate the building.
The government evacuated the American citizens from the war-torn land. During the war, their school was evacuated to the country. The treasures have been evacuated to safety Evacuate Evacuation Evacuee Evacuator Evacuative
Evacuation hospital
Voc, vok (L. to call, voice) Voice--sound
Vocal—pertaining to voice, speaking, singing Vocal organs, vocal music, a vocal critic
Advocate (ad=to,voc=to call, -ate=person)--person who calls to others 辩护者,拥护者; 拥护, 提倡
Provoke (pro-forth, vok-call)—to call forth, to arouse 唤起,引起; challenge, stimulate 煽动,对….挑衅
His slip of tongue provoked shouts of laughter. The waiter’s insult provoked the Black to anger.
Vocation(voc=-to call, -ation=the state or result)—the state of result of being called by God, or one’s interest, etc.
Job which one feels he is chosen to do certainly天职,使命; one’s main job, regular occupation职业,行业. I feel no vocation for farming. She chose music as her vocation
Avocation ；Calling one away from his job; hobby, or diversion, secondary job My uncle’s vocation is medicine, his avocation is music. Learning foreign languages is an avocation with me
Invoke；(in=upon)—call upon(as for aid, protection),要求,祈求保佑 The priest invoked God’s blessing on the villagers.
The lawyer invoked a new amendment.律师援引了一项新的修正案条文. Evoke；(e=out)—call out; summon forth The photo evoked his memories of the past. His words evoked great indignation.
Revoke；re=back)—call back 撤回,撤销,吊销 His driving license was revoked for the accident. The committee revoked a decision.
They refused to vouch for the correctness of the report. 其他Vocabulary acquisition is very important. He gave an equivocal reply.
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• • • • Few words are univocal
The Change of Word Meaning 词义的变化 书88
Polysemy一词多义The phenomenon that a word may have more than one meaning polysemic 多义词A word with more than one meaning
• Bench
• Every time we go there, he is sitting on a park bench.
on • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
A piece of furniture for you to sit Here is the list of the full bench of the supreme court.judges He was brought before the bench.court Mary served on the bench and in Congress.court Tom got a bench in the Parliament. seat This is a team with the best bench.substitutes They conducted the bench test successfully. Table She took her cat to the bench show.动物展览评比会 Tom’s father worked as a bench scientist for many years.在实验室工作的科学家 I am tired of being a bench warmer, nor do I want to be a bench jockey.替补队员；在替补队员席上起哄的棒球队员（为干扰对方运动员或裁判员）
Treacle
Pertaining to wild beast.(与野兽有关的。 Theriakon Gk. ) .Use this treacle for the snakebite. (<废>解毒剂） There is no treacle for all diseases. (<废>万灵药）
Pudding is something made with treacle.(molasses, 糖蜜）
Her treacle to the boss was sickening.(flattery 恭维话，过分甜蜜的声音)
Radiation 词义的辐射 书90A semantic process in which the central meaning stands at the center and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays.
• The meanings are independent of one another, but can all be traced back to the central
meaning.
• Concatenation 连锁联接 书92A semantic process where each of the later meaning
is related to the proceeding one like chains.
• Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in
between
• Tally—account, keeping account 帐，记账，【体】得分，计分 • a running tally 流水账
• Can you keep a tally of your own marks?把你自己的得分记下来，好么？ • The original meaning: cutting 切割
• A cutting of notches to keep an account 在木签上刻痕记账 • Bank –bench
• Bank—bench, money changer’s table
• They had a proper dinner at prices that will not break the bank. • The company went bankrupt.
• There were many bankruptcies in the business world last year.
• Types of Meaning Change词义变化的方式 （Generalization ，Specialization，
Elevation，Degeneration，The use of the abstract for the concrete or vice versa，Common words from proper nouns，Transference of meaning） 见书93
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• Generalization, widening of meaning词义的扩展
• John is fortunate to have married a woman who is good at economy. (managing the
house)
• Specialization, Narrowing of meaning 词义的缩小
• Rats and mice and such small deer have been Tom’s food for seven long days (animal).
King Lear
• Elevation, ameliaration 词义的升格 • Minister—servant
• Constable—stable attendant
• Degeneration, Degradation 词义的降格
•
Weakening of meaning • • • •
•
Silly—innocent, harmless Cunning—knowing, skillful
Terrific, fantastic, supercolossal, outrageous, horrible, atrocious, dreadful
The use of abstract for the concrete or vice versa 词的抽象意义和具体意义相互转化
Concrete becomes abstract • Apprehend—take hold of
• Threat—army, a group of people
•
Abstract becomes concrete • He was a tough proposition.他是个难对付的人。 • • • •
•
Common words from proper names Judas A traitor
Braille Writing for the blind Pasteurize 巴氏消毒
Words from Proper Nouns
• Kodak, Cologne • • • • •
Sandwich，Ampere，Ohm，Volt，Watt，Champagne，Utopia，Nylon Meaning transference词义的转移
hateful 1. 充满仇恨的，有敌意的subjective 2. 可恨的，讨厌的objective
dreadful—内心感到十分畏惧的；令人畏惧的
• Semantic Classification of Words--meaning relations between words词的语义分类
• • • • •
•
• • •
Hyponymy 上下义关系 见书111 Synonym 同义关系 见书113
书116起Difference in Meaning语义上的差异
Difference in emotional and stylistic coloring 感情色彩和语体色彩上的差异
Difference in collocation and distribution 搭配与分布的差异 Homonymy 同形异义 书128 They continue to tell lies. They lie motionless.
原因Split of polysemy 多义词的词义分化
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• • • • • • • • • • • •
Flower； flour I --- ic (old English) eye---eage (old English) pop (popular) disc (discotheque)
• Converging sound development 音变的会合
• Shortening of words 词语的缩略
Vis, vid=look,see
Visible. 可见的，看得见的 Visual art 视觉艺术 Supervise 监督，管理 Evident 明显的，显然的
Provident 未雨绸缪的，有远见的，节约的 Improvise 临时准备，即时发挥，即兴表演
• Visual, evidence, supervision, visible, envisage, envision, improvise, provident, revise,
visage • __ Visibility is how far or how clearly you can see in particular weather conditions. • If you __envisage/envision a situation or event, you imagine it, or think that it is likely to
happen • • • • • •
__ Evidence is anything that makes you believe something is true or exists.
When a pianist ____Improvises on the stage, he does not prepare his music beforehand. An ______improvident person usually does not save money for future needs. This drug should only be taken under the ___ supervision of a doctor.
Since words alone may fail to convey an idea, teachers often use _____visual aids.
It’s so clean and beautiful; the dirty ___visage of a coal mining town has disappeared altogether.
• Before you hand in your composition, be sure to---- revise it carefully. • We get a good ____ vision but poor sound on this television set. • spect, spic=look, see
• • • • • • • • • • • •
Spectacle 景象 Spectator 观众 Inspect 检查，视察 Introspect 内省，自我反省 Retrospect 回顾 Prospect 前景 Specimen 标本，样品 Suspect 怀疑，不相信 Perspicacious 有洞察力的 Conspicuous 显著的 Despise 轻视，看不起 Circumspect 谨慎的，小心的
练习He was drunk and his behavior at the party was ___despicable_.
• Everyone at the wedding was formally dressed, and she was ____conspicuous in jeans.
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• • • • • • Investigating before acting, she tried always to be _______circumspect Peace talks start today with every ____prospect of success. The officer got out of the car to _____inspect the damage. In ____retrospect, it’s easy to see why we were wrong. Strike-breakers are often ______ despised by their workmates.
I ____suspect him of stealing the money. I am not absolutely sure of that
before I have any proof • Antonymy反义
• A handsome man—an ___
ugly man
• A handsome income–- a ____meager income • Fresh bread--____stale bread • Fresh air-- stuffy air
• Fresh flowers -- faded flowers •
书131 和135 练习
• Dict-=say, speak
• Contradict 反驳，与……相矛盾 • Dictate 口授，听写，指示命令 • Dictator 独裁者 • Predict 预言，预报 • diction 措辞，用词 • Dictionary 词典 • Benediction 祝福
• Malediction 诅咒，坏话 • Dictum 格言
• Indict 起诉，指控 • Interdict 禁止，阻断 • Verdict 裁决，判决 • Abdicate 退位，放弃 • Jurisdiction 司法权 • Edict 布告，法令
• Log(ue), loqu,locu,=say, speak • Dialogue 对话
• Monologue 独白，独角戏 • Eulogy 赞词，颂词 • Analogy 类比
• Catalogue 一览表，目录 • Prologue 序言，开场白
• Epilogue 后记，跋，收场白 • Neologism 新词 • Loquacious 多话的
• Circumlocution 婉转曲折的陈述，迂回的说法 • Eloquent 雄辩的，有口才的
• Magniloquent 使用夸张语言的，华而不实的 •
Obloquy 谩骂
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例Love, hateAntonymy反义关系
• Like, favor, be fond ofSynonymy同义关系 • Sea, seeHomonymy同音异义
Apple, fruit, bananaHyponymy上下义关系
Idioms 习语
• It is raining cats and dogs. • 外面下着倾盆大雨。 • • • • • • • • • •
Children often take off the adults. 孩子经常模仿大人。
Time and tide wait for no man. 机不可失，时不再来
They are taken good care of from cradle to grave. 他们一生都得到了很好的照顾。 Characteristics of Idioms 英语习语的特点 Semantic unity 语义的整体性 Has one meaning；Functions as one word till the cows come home (forever 永远地) rain cats and dogs (rain heavily 倾盆大雨)
Structural stability 结构的稳定性The structure of an idiom is to a large extent unchangeableWord order can’t be changed；Constituents can‘t be replaced • by twos and threes (三三两两地，两三个一次地) • In a brown study (deep in thought 沉思)
• Classification of idioms习语的分类
• Idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语An idiom nominal in nature functions as a noun
in sentences 例Jack of all trades 三脚猫，杂而不精的人 • white elephant 无用而累赘的东西
• Idioms adjectival in nature 形容词性习语as poor as a church mouse 一贫如洗 • Beyond the pale 越轨的 up in the air 悬而未决的
• Idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语Put off 推迟Get away with 逃脱惩罚
• Put down to 把……归因于Give sb the bag 解雇某人Make it 做成
Chop and change 变化无常
• Idioms adverbial in nature 副词性习语Tooth and nail 竭尽全力地 • Heart and soul 全心全意地
• Through thick and thin 在任何情况下 • Sentence idioms 句式习语
• A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. • 双鸟在林不如一鸟在手。 • How are you? 你好吗？ • Interrogative 疑问句
• Never do things by halves. 做事不要半途而废。 • Imperative 祈使句
• That’s the time of day! 原来如此！ • Exclamative 感叹句
• Stylistic Features of Idioms 习语的文体色彩
• Idioms are generally informal. Many of them were first created by working people. • In deep water 陷入困境seaman
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• Kill two birds with one stone 一石二鸟hunter
• New brooms sweep clean 新官上任三把火housewife Rhetorical features of idioms 习语的修辞特征 1. Phonetic manipulation 语音运用
Alliteration 头韵
• might and main 全力
• chop and change 变化无常 • Time and tide wait for no man. • 机不可失，时不再来 Rhyme
• wear and tear 损耗
• by hook and by crook 不择手段 2. Lexical manipulation 词汇运用
Reiteration 同义反复
• pick and choose 挑挑拣拣 • hustle and bustle 匆匆忙忙 Repetition 同词重复
• by and by 逐渐地; out and out彻头彻尾地 Juxtaposition 反义并列
• play fast and loose 行为反复无常，玩弄 • sooner or later; up and down 3. Figures of speech 修辞手法
• 1. Simile 明喻
• spend money like water • 2. Metaphor 隐喻
• black sheep 败类 new broom • 3. Metonymy 提喻 • from cradle to grave • 4. Synecdoche 借代
• fall into good hands 好人 • 5. Personification 拟人
• Failure is the mother of success.
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