Thermodynamics is the physics of energy, heat, work, entropy and the spontaneity of processes. Thermodynamics is closely related to statistical mechanics from which many thermodynamic relationships can be derived.
热力学是物理能量，热，工作过程，熵和自发性。热力学是密切相关的统计力学，热力学关系可以推导出。
While dealing with processes in which systems exchange matter or energy, classical thermodynamics is not concerned with the rate at which such processes take place, termed kinetics. For this reason, the use of the term “thermodynamics” usually refers to equilibrium thermodynamics. In this connection, a central concept in thermodynamics is that of quasistatic processes, which are idealized, “infinitely slow” processes. Time-dependent thermodynamic processes are studied by non-equilibrium thermodynamics.
在处理中，系统交换物质或能量的过程，经典热力学不关心这些过程发生的速率，称为动力学。为此，对“热力学”通常指的是平衡热力学的使用。在这方面，热力学中一个重要的概念是，准静态过程，是理想化的，“无限慢”的过程。时间依赖性的热力学过程的非平衡热力学研究。
1 Applications of Thermodynamics 1.热力学应用
There are two major applications of thermodynamics, both of which are important to chemical engineers:
有两个主要应用热力学，这两者都是化学工程师的重要：
(1) The calculation of heat and work effects associated with process as well as the calculation of the maximum work obtainable from a process or the minimum work required to drive a process.（1）的热量和工作的影响与过程以及从一个过程或最小工作需要驱动的过程中获得的最大工作的计算。
(2) The establishment of relationships among the variables describing systems at equilibrum.2）描述系统在平衡的变量之间的关系的建立。
The first application is suggested by the name thermodynamics, which implies heat in motion. Most of these calculations can be made by the direct implementation of the first and second laws.Examples are calculating the work of compressing a gas, performing an energy balance on an entire process or a process unit, determining the minimum work of separating a mixture of ethanol and water, or evaluating the efficiency of an ammonia synthesis plant.第一个应用是由名称热力学的建议，这意味着热运动。大多数这些计算可以由第一和第二定律直接执行。实例计算压缩气体的工作，执行对整个过程或过程单元的能量平衡，确定分离乙醇和水的混合物的最小工作，或评估一个合成氨厂的效率。
The application of thermodynamics to a particular system results in the definition of useful properties and the establishment of a network of relationships among the properties and other variables such as pressure, temperature, volume, and mol fraction. Actually, application 1 would not be possible unless a means existed for evaluating the necessary thermodynamics property changes required in implementing the first and second laws. The property changes are calculated from experimentally determined data via the established network of relationships. Additionally, the network of relationships among the variables of a system allows the calculation of values of variables which are either unknown or difficult to determine experimentally from variables which
are either available or easier to measure. For example, the heat of vaporizing a liquid can be calculated from measurements of the vapor pressure at several temperatures and the densities of the liquid and vapor phase at several temperatures, and the maximum conversion obtainable in a chemical reaction at any temperature can be calculated from calorimetric measurements performed on the individual substances participating in the reaction.
热力学的有用的特性，和其他变量，如压力，温度，体积性质之间的关系，建立一个网络的定义，一个特定的系统中，与摩尔分数。实际上，应用1将不可能存在除非手段评估必要的热力学性质的变化在执行第一和第二定律。属性的变化计算从实验确定的数据通过网络关系的建立。此外，一个系统的变量之间的关系的网络允许是未知的或难以确定实验中是可用的或容易衡量的变量的变量值的计算。例如，蒸发液体可从蒸汽压力测量在不同温度下的液体和蒸气相的密度在几个温度下计算出的热，在任何温度下化学反应得到最大的转换可以从热测量对个体物质参与的反应进行了计算。
2 The nature of Thermodynamics2热力学性质
A. Thermodynamics is a science that includes the study of energy transformations and of the relationships among the physical properties of substances that are affected by these transformations.A.热力学是一门科学，包括研究的能量转换和之间的关系，通过这些变革影响物质的物理性质之间的。
1. Definition is broad and vague.1定义是广泛的，模糊的。
2. Mechanical engineers typically focus on power and refrigeration devices such as steam power plants, fuel cells, nuclear reactors, etc.
2机械工程师通常集中在发电和制冷设备如蒸汽发电厂，燃料电池，核反应堆等。
3. Chemical engineers typically focus on phase equilibria and chemical reactions and the associated properties.3化学工程师通常集中在相平衡和化学反应和相关的性能。
4. Element which really sets thermodynamics apart from other sciences is the study of energy transformations through heat and work.4元素，真正使热力学与其他科学是通过热与功转换能量的研究。
B. Thermodynamic properties can be studied either by studying macroscopic or microscopic behavior of matter.B.热力学性质进行研究无论是通过研究宏观或微观物质的行为。
1. Classical thermodynamics treats matter as a continuum and studies the macroscopic behavior of matter1经典热力学治疗物质作为一个连续体，研究物质的宏观行为2. Statistical thermodynamics studies the statistical behavior of large groups of individual particles. It postulates that observed physical property behavior (e.g., T, p, H, ∙∙∙) is equal to the appropriate statistical average of a large number of particles.2统计热力学研究的大组的单个粒子的统计行为。它假设，观察到的物理属性的行为（例如，T，P，H，∙∙∙）等于相应的统计平均的大量粒子。
C. Thermodynamics is based upon experimental observation.C.热力学是基于实验观察。1. Conclusions of observations have been cast as postulates or laws.1已被称为假设或法律结论的观察。2. Our study of thermodynamics will consider five laws or postulates; two dealing with energy transformation and three dealing with properties.2我们的热力学研究会考虑五法律或假设；两个处理的能量转换和三处理性能。
Energy Transformation Laws:能量转化规律：
a. First Law of Thermodynamics--Energy is conserved. (You can't win!) A.热力学第一定律——能量守恒。（你不可能赢的！）
b. Second Law of Thermodynamics--Takes many forms. In essence it says that energy has
different “quality” and processes only spontaneously proceed in one direction. It isn't possible to convert all of the energy of a system into work.
B.热力学第二定律——以多种形式。从本质上说，能有不同的“质量”，只在一个方向自发进行的过程。你不可能将所有的精力投入到工作的系统。 Property Relationship Laws:
c. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics--When each of two systems is in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
C.热力学第零定律——当两个系统都是在热平衡三分之一系统，他们也彼此处于热平衡状态。
d. Third Law of Thermodynamics--The “entropy” of a perfect crystal is zero at absolute zero temperature
.D.热力学第三定律——“熵”的一个完美的晶体是零在绝对零度的温度下。
e. State Postulate--The state of a simple, single phase thermodynamic system is completely specified by two independently variable, intensive properties.
E状态的假设——一个简单的状态，单相的热力学系统完全由两个独立的变量指定的，密集的性质。
D. Energy Conversion and Efficiency 能量转换效率
1.A primary concern in thermodynamics is energy conversion and a measure of energy conversion success is called the efficiency. For energy consuming or producing devices it is called the thermal efficiency:
1热力学中的一个主要关注的是能源转换和衡量成功的被称为能量转换效率。对能源的消耗及生产设备，它被称为热效率：
3 Definitions and Thermodynamic Vocabulary 3定义和热力学的词汇 A. Thermodynamic System A.热力系统
1. Definition--A three dimensional region of space bounded by arbitrary surfaces (which may be real or imaginary and may change size or shape) which delineate the portion of the universe we are interested in.
1定义——一三维空间区域范围内的任意曲面（这可能是真实的或想象的，可能会改变大小或形状），勾画出我们感兴趣的是宇宙的一部分。
a. Closed System is a system that is closed with respect to the flow of matter, e.g., fixed, closed volume. A closed system is defined by a fixed quantity of mass.
封闭的系统是一个系统，是相对于物质流，例如，固定的闭合，闭合容积。一个封闭的系统是由一个固定数量的质量定义。
b. Open System is a system that is open with respect to the flow of matter such as a compressor. The system is defined by an imaginary volume surrounding the region of interest. The surface of this volume is called the control or sigma (s ) surface. Mass, heat, work and momentum can flow across the control surface. 打开系统是一个系统，是相对于物质如压缩机流量开放。该系统是由周围感兴趣区域的一个假想的体积定义。本卷的表面被称为控制或σ（的）表面。质量，动量和热量，工作可以流过控制面。
c. Isolated System is a system that is not influenced in any way by the part of space which is
external to the system boundaries. No heat, work, mass or momentum can cross the boundary of an isolated system. (N, V, U) are fixed and constant in a closed system.
C.孤立系统是一个系统，不影响任何方式的空间是系统边界外的部分。没有热，质量和动量的工作，可以跨一个孤立的系统边界。（N，V，U）是固定的，在一个封闭的系统常数。 d. Simple System is a system that does not contain any internal adiabatic, rigid and impermeable boundaries and is not acted upon by external forces.
D.简单的系统是一个系统，不包含任何内部绝热，刚性和不透水边界并不是由外力驱动。 e. Composite System is a system that is composed of two or more simple systems. E.复合系统是一个系统，由两个或两个以上的简单系统。 B. Property B.属性
1. Definition--A characteristic of a system. 1定义一个系统的一个特性—。
a. Primitive Property is a property that can in principle be specified by describing an operation or test to which the system is subjected. Examples include mechanical measurements (e.g., pressure, volume, and thermometric temperature T) and heat capacity. 原始的财产是财产，原则上可以在指定的描述一个操作或测试该系统受到。例子包括机械测量（例如，压力，体积和温度，温度T）和热容量。
b. Derived Property is a property that is mathematically defined in terms of primitive properties. B.派生属性，是数学中的原始定义属性的属性。
c. Intensive Property is a property that is independent of the extent of or mass of the system. Examples are T, P, density, (x), etc.
C.密集的属性是独立的程度，或系统的质量属性。的例子是T，P，密度，（x），等。 d. Extensive Property is a property whose value for the system is dependent upon the mass or extent of the system. Examples are the enthalpy, internal energy, volume, etc.
D.广泛性是系统的值是依赖于系统的质量或程度的财产的例子是内部的能量，焓，体积，等。 e. Specific Property is an extensive property per unit mass. Specific properties are intensive. E.特性是一个广泛的每单位质量特性。具体性能密集型。
f. State Property is a property that only depends on the thermodynamic state of the system, not the path taken to get to that state.
F.国家财产是财产，仅取决于系统的热力学状态，而不是采取的路径到达这一状态。 C. State of a System C.系统状态
1. Thermodynamic State--The condition of the system as characterized by the values of its properties.
1热力学状态——系统的状况为特征的自身属性的值。
2. Stable Equilibrium State is a state in which the system is not capable of finite spontaneous change to another state without a finite change in the state of the surroundings.
2稳定平衡状态是不能够有限自然变化到另一种状态是系统的状态不在周围的区域有限的改变。
a. Many types of equilibrium must be fulfilled -- thermal, mechanical, phase (material) and chemical.
许多类型的平衡必须满足——热，机械，化学和相位（材料）。
3. State Postulate: The equilibrium state of a simple closed system can be completely
characterized by two independently variable properties and the masses of the species contained within the system. 3状态公理：一个简单的封闭系统的平衡状态可以完全由两个独立变量的属性和包含在系统中的物种的群众。
D. Thermodynamic Process D.热力过程
1. Definition--A transformation from one equilibrium state to another. 1定义——一个从一个平衡状态转换到另一个。
a. Quasi-static Process is a process where every intermediate state is a stable equilibrium state.准静态过程是一个过程，每一个中间状态，是一种稳定的平衡状态。
b. Reversible Process is one in which a second process could be performed so that the system and surroundings can be restored to their initial states with no change in the system or surroundings. B.可逆过程是一种第二过程可以进行这样的体制环境可以恢复到其初始状态与系统或环境没有变化。
1) Reversible processes are quasi-static but quasi-static processes are not necessarily reversible.1）可逆过程是准静态的，准静态过程并不一定是可逆的。 2) A quasi-static process in a simple system is also reversible. 2）在一个简单的系统的准静态过程是可逆的。
3) Some factors which render processes irreversible are friction, unrestrained expansion of gasses, heat transfer through a finite temperature difference, mixing, chemical reaction, etc.3）的一些因素，使过程的不可逆的摩擦，无限膨胀的气体，通过传热有限的温度差异，混合，化学反应，等。
E. Thermodynamic Path E.热力学路径
1. The specification of a series of states through which a system passes in a process. 1规范的一系列状态通过该系统通过一个过程。 4 The Laws of Thermodynamics 4个热力学定律
First law of Thermodynamics 热力学第一定律
The first law of thermodynamics is simply a statement of the conservation of energy. The sum of all the energy leaving a process must equal the sum of all the energy entering, in the steady state. The laws of conservation of mass and energy are followed implicitly by engineers designing and operating processes of all kinds. Unfortunately, taken by itself, the first law has led to much confusion when attempting to evaluate process efficiency. People talk of energy conservation being an important effort, but in fact, no effort is required to conserve energy－it is naturally conserved.
热力学第一定律是一个简单的声明，能量守恒。所有能留下一个过程之和必须等于所有的能量进入和，在稳定状态。的质量和能量守恒定律是隐式的工程师设计和各种操作过程。不幸的是，所采取的本身，第一定律有LED很大的混乱，试图评估过程的效率。人们谈论节能是一个重要的努力，但事实上，没有努力是需要节约能源－这自然是保守的。
The conclusions which can be drawn from the first law are limited because it does not distinguish among the various energy forms. Shaft work introduced by a reflux pump will leave a column as heat to the condenser just as readily as will heat introduced at the reboiler. Some engineers have
fallen into the trap of lumping all forms of energy together in attempting to determine process efficiency. This is obvious not justified－the various energy forms have different costs. 这可以从第一定律得出的结论是有限的，它不区分不同的能量形式之间。轴通过回流泵介绍会留下一个柱热凝汽器一样容易因为将热量在再沸器的介绍。一些工程师落入陷阱，将所有形式的能量，在试图确定过程的效率。这是明显不合理的－各种能源形式有不同的成本。 Second law of Thermodynamics 热力学第二定律
Entropy plays a critical role in thermodynamic analysis, because it is the missing factor that we were seeking to allow us to predict the direction of change in atomic or molecular systems. The essential result constitutes the second law of thermodynamics, which can be stated in several ways, not all of them obviously equivalent, but in fact all of them providing the same message. 熵是热力学分析的一个关键的作用，因为它是缺失的因素，我们试图让我们预测在原子或分子系统改变方向。重要的结果是热力学第二定律，它可以有几种表达方式，不是所有的人显然是等价的，但事实上他们都提供相同的信息。
Here are some of them:1. Heat does not spontaneously flow from a cold body to a hot body.2. Spontaneous processes are not thermodynamically reversible.3. The complete conversion of heat into work is impossible without leaving some effect elsewhere.4. It is impossible to convert heat into work by means of a constant temperature cycle5. All natural processes are accompanied by a net gain in entropy of the system and its surroundings.This last statement is most useful to us. Let us write
这里有一些人：1。热不自发地从冰冷的身体流到热的物体。2。自发过程的热力学不可逆的。3。没有留下一些影响其他地方的热转化为功的完整的转换是不可能的。4。这是不可能的热能转换成工作在恒定的温度cycle5手段。所有的自然过程都伴随着系统的熵及其周围的净增益。最后这句话对我们最有用的。让我们写的。
Lesson 11 Heat Transfer 1 Basics of Heat Transfer 1基本传热
In the simplest of terms, the discipline of heat transfer is concerned with only two things: temperature, and the flow of heat. Temperature represents the amount of thermal energy available, whereas heat flow represents the movement of thermal energy from place to place.
在最简单的术语，传热学科关注的只有两件事：温度，和热流量。温度是热能源的数量，而热流代表的热能从一个地方移动到的地方。
On a microscopic scale, thermal energy is related to the kinetic energy of molecules. The greater a material's temperature, the greater the thermal agitation of its constituent molecules (manifested both in linear motion and vibrational modes). It is natural for regions containing greater molecular kinetic energy to pass this energy to regions with less kinetic energy.
在微观尺度，热能是分子的动能相关。更大的物质的温度，其组成分子的热运动更大的（表现在直线运动模式）和振动。含有大分子的动能来传递能量到较小的动能的地区是自然的。 Several material properties serve to modulate the heat transferred between two regions at differing temperatures. Examples include thermal conductivities, specific heats, material densities, fluid velocities, fluid viscosities, surface emissivities, and more. Taken together, these properties serve to make the solution of many heat transfer problems an involved process.
几种材料的性能起到调节转移之间的两个区域在不同温度下的热。例子包括的热传导率，比热，密度，流体速度，流体粘度，表面的发射率，和更多。总之，这些特性使许多传热问题，一个复杂的过程，解决方案。 2. Heat Transfer Mechanisms 2传热机制
Heat transfer mechanisms can be grouped into 3 broad categories: 传热机制可以分为3大类：
Conduction: Regions with greater molecular kinetic energy will pass their thermal energy to regions with less molecular energy through direct molecular collisions, a process known as conduction. In metals, a significant portion of the transported thermal energy is also carried by conduction-band electrons. 传导：更大的分子动能的地区将通过他们的热能通过分子的直接碰撞不分子的能量区域，这个过程被称为传导。在金属的热能源，运输的一个重要部分，也是由导带电子进行。
Convection: When heat conducts into a static fluid it leads to a local volumetric expansion. As a result of gravity-induced pressure gradients, the expanded fluid parcel becomes buoyant and displaces, thereby transporting heat by fluid motion (i.e. convection) in addition to conduction. Such heat-induced fluid motion in initially static fluids is known as free convection. 对流：当热传递到一个静态流体导致局部体积膨胀。作为一个结果，诱导的压力梯度，重力，浮力和流体包裹成为扩大移除，从而输送热流体运动（即对流）除了传导。这样的热诱导的流体运动的最初的静态液体被称为自由对流。
Radiation: For cases where the fluid is already in motion, heat conducted into the fluid will be transported away chiefly by fluid convection. These cases, known as forced convection, require a pressure gradient to drive the fluid motion, as opposed to a gravity gradient to induce motion through buoyancy.
辐射：对于流体已经在运动，进行了流体热将被运走，主要是由流体对流。这些情况下，被称为强制对流，需要的压力梯度驱动的流体的运动，而不是一个重力梯度诱导运动通过浮力.
Lesson 12 Reactor Types
1 Stirred tank reactor 1搅拌釜式反应器
A batch stirred tank reactor is the simplest type of reactor. It is composed of a reactor and a mixer such as a stirrer, a turbine wing or a propeller. The batch stirred tank reactor is illustrated below: 间歇搅拌反应器是最简单的一种反应堆。 是由反应器和混合器，如搅拌器，涡轮翼或螺旋桨。在间歇搅拌反应器的说明如下：
This reactor is useful for substrate solutions of high viscosity and for immobilized enzymes with relatively low activity. However, a problem that arises is that an immobilized enzyme tends to decompose upon physical stirring. The batch system is generally suitable for the production of rather small amounts of chemicals.
该反应器可用于高粘度基质溶液和固定化酶的活性较低。然而，出现的一个问题是，固定化酶会分解后的物理搅拌。批处理系统一般适用于较少量的化学品的生产。 A continuous stirred tank reactor is shown below:
连续搅拌釜式反应器，如下所示：
The continuous stirred tank reactor is more efficient than a batch stirred tank reactor but the equipment is slightly more complicated.
连续搅拌釜式反应器的效率比间歇搅拌反应器但稍微复杂一 设备。 2 Tubular Reactor 2管式反应器
Tubular reactors are generally used for gaseous reactions, but are also suitable for some liquid-phase reactions.管式反应器一般用于气体反应，但也可用于液相反应。
If high heat-transfer rates are required, small-diameter tubes are used to increase the surface area to volume ratio. Several tubes may be arranged in parallel, connected to a manifold or fitted into a tube sheet in a similar arrangement to a shell and tube heat exchanger. For high-temperature reactions the tubes may be arranged in a furnace.
如果高传热率的要求，小直径管是用来增加表面积体积比。几个管可能被安排在平行，连接到一个流形或装成一个类似的安排，管板的管壳式热交换器。用于高温反应管可布置在炉。 3 Fluidized bed Reactor 3流化床反应器
A fluidized bed reactor (FBR) is a type of reactor device that can be used to carry out a variety of multiphase chemical reactions. In this type of reactor, a fluid (gas or liquid) is passed through a granular solid material (usually a catalyst possibly shaped as tiny spheres) at high enough velocities to suspend the solid and cause it to behave as though it were a fluid. This process, known as fluidization, imparts many important advantages to the FBR. As a result, the fluidized bed reactor is now used in many industrial applications.
流化床反应器（FBR）是一种可以用来进行各种多相化学反应的反应装置。在这种类型的反应器，流体（气体或液体）通过固体颗粒材料（通常是一个催化剂可能形成微小的球体）在足够高的速度，暂停固体和使它的行为就好像它是一个流体。这个过程，称为流化，赋予了许多重要的优势，FBR。作为一个结果，流化床反应器现在是用在许多工业应用。 Basic principles 基本原则
The solid substrate (the catalytic material upon which chemical species react) material in the fluidized bed reactor is typically supported by a porous plate, known as a distributor. The fluid is then forced through the distributor up through the solid material. At lower fluid velocities, the solids remain in place as the fluid passes through the voids in the material. This is known as a packed bed reactor. As the fluid velocity is increased, the reactor will reach a stage where the force of the fluid on the solids is enough to balance the weight of the solid material. This stage is known as incipient fluidization and occurs at this minimum fluidization velocity. Once this minimum velocity is surpassed, the contents of the reactor bed begin to expand and swirl around much like an agitated tank or boiling pot of water. The reactor is now a fluidized bed. Depending on the operating conditions and properties of solid phase various flow regimes can be observed in this reactor.
固体基质（在化学物种的反应催化材料）在流化床反应器的材料通常是由一个多孔板支撑，称为分配器。流体然后被迫通过分配器通过固体材料。在较低的流速，固体留在地方，流体通过在材料中的空隙。这就是众所周知的填充床反应器。随着空气流速的增加，反应器将达到一个阶段，在固体的流体力足以平衡的固体材料的重量。这一阶段被称为初始流态化和发生在这个最小流化速度。一旦这个最小速度超过了，床层的内容开始扩大，旋转，就像一个
搅拌罐或壶沸腾的水。现在是一个流化床反应器。根据不同的操作条件和固相的各种流型特性可以在此反应器中观察到的。 Advantages优势
The increase in fluidized bed reactor use in today’s industrial world is largely due to the inherent advantages of the technology.
在流化床反应器中使用，在今天的工业世界的增加主要是由于技术的固有的优点。
Uniform Particle Mixing: Due to the intrinsic fluid-like behavior of the solid material, fluidized beds do not experience poor mixing as in packed beds. This complete mixing allows for a uniform product that can often be hard to achieve in other reactor designs. The elimination of radial and axial concentration gradients also allows for better fluid-solid contact, which is essential for reaction efficiency and quality.
均匀颗粒混合：由于固有的流体状的固体材料的行为，流化床不经历不良混合在填充床。这完全混合，允许一个统一的产品，往往很难在其他反应器的设计实现。径向和轴向的浓度梯度，也可以更好的流固接触的消除，这是反应的效率和质量的关键。
Uniform Temperature Gradients: Many chemical reactions produce or require the addition of heat. Local hot or cold spots within the reaction bed, often a problem in packed beds, are avoided in a fluidized situation such as an FBR. In other reactor types, these local temperature differences, especially hotspots, can result in product degradation. Thus FBRs are well suited to exothermic reactions. Researchers have also learned that the bed-to-surface heat transfer coefficients for FBRs are high.
均匀的温度梯度：许多化学反应产生或需要另外的热量。局部热点或冷点反应床内，经常在填充床的一个问题，是在一个流化床情况如FBR避免。在其他类型的反应堆，这些地方的温度差异，特别是热点，可使产品降解。因此，非常适合于放热反应中。研究人员还发现中的表面传热系数高的床。
Ability to Operate Reactor in Continuous State: The fluidized bed nature of these reactors allows for the ability to continuously withdraw product and introduce new reactants into the reaction vessel. Operating at a continuous process state allows manufacturers to produce their various products more efficiently due to the removal of startup conditions in batch processes. 能力连续操作反应器：流化床这些自然的反应器允许连续撤回产品和引进新的反应物在反应容器的能力。在一个连续的过程状态操作允许制造商生产的各种产品更有效地由于在分批启动条件的去除过程。 Disadvantages缺点
As in any design, the fluidized bed reactor does have it draw-backs, which any reactor designer must take into consideration.
在任何设计，流化床反应器也有它的局限，任何反应器设计时必须考虑的。
ncreased Reactor Vessel Size: Because of the expansion of the bed materials in the reactor, a larger vessel is often required than that for a packed bed reactor. This larger vessel means that more must be spent on initial startup costs. 增加反应器的容器的大小：由于在反应器的床材料的膨胀，一个更大的容器通常需要比固定床反应器。这意味着更大的容器必须花在初始启动成本。
Pumping Requirements and Pressure Drop: The requirement for the fluid to suspend the solid material necessitates that a higher fluid velocity is attained in the reactor. In order to achieve this, more pumping power and thus higher energy costs are needed. In addition, the pressure drop
associated with deep beds also requires additional pumping power.
抽水的要求和压力降：为暂停固体材料要求较高的流体速度是在反应器中的流体达到要求。为了实现这一点，更多的泵浦功率，从而更高的能源成本是必要的。此外，深床的压降也需要额外的泵功率。
Particle Entrainment: The high gas velocities present in this style of reactor often result in fine particles becoming entrained in the fluid. These captured particles are then carried out of the reactor with the fluid, where they must be separated. This can be a very difficult and expensive problem to address depending on the design and function of the reactor. This may often continue to be a problem even with other entrainment reducing technologies.
颗粒夹带的高的气体速度在这种风格的反应往往成为流体夹带的细颗粒。这些捕获的颗粒进行了反应器的流体，在那里他们必须分开。这是地址取决于反应器的设计和功能非常困难和昂贵的问题。这可能会继续是一个问题，即使与其他夹带减少技术。
Lack of Current Understanding: Current understanding of the actual behavior of the materials in a fluidized bed is rather limited. It is very difficult to predict and calculate the complex mass and heat flows within the bed. Due to this lack of understanding, a pilot plant for new processes is required. Even with pilot plants, the scale-up can be very difficult and may not reflect what was experienced in the pilot trial.
缺乏目前的理解：流化床中的材料的实际行为，目前的理解是相当有限的。它是预测和计算复杂的热质流在床上很难。由于缺乏理解，对新工艺中试所。即使飞行员厂，规模是非常困难的，可能没有反映出什么是在试点经验。
Erosion of Internal Components: The fluid-like behavior of the fine solid particles within the bed eventually results in the wear of the reactor vessel. This can require expensive maintenance and upkeep for the reaction vessel and pipes. 侵蚀内部组件：类似流体的固体微粒的行为在床的最终结果在反应堆容器的磨损。这就需要对反应容器和管道的维护和保养。 4 Packed bed Reactor 4填充床反应器
There are two basic types of packed-bed reactor: those in which the solid is a reactant, and those in which the solid is a catalyst. Many examples of the first type can be found in the extractive metallurgical industries.
填充床反应器有两种基本类型：那些在固体反应物，和那些在其中的固体催化剂。的第一类型的许多例子可以在提取冶金行业。
In the chemical process industries the designer will normally be concerned with the second type: catalytic reactors. Industrial packed-bed catalytic reactors range in size from small tubes, a few centimeters diameter to large diameter packed beds. Packed-bed reactors are used for gas and gas-liquid reactions. Heat-transfer rates in large diameter packed beds are poor and where high heat-transfer rates are required fluidized beds should be considered. 在化工流程工业设计师通常会关注的第二类：催化反应器。工业固定床催化反应器的范围的大小从几厘米直径小，管，对大直径填充床。填充床反应器是用于气-液反应。在大直径填充床的传热速率是穷人和高传热率所需的流化床中应考虑。 agitated tank n. 搅拌槽 batch stirred tank reactor n. 间歇搅拌反应釜 catalytic reactor n. 催化反应器 continuous stirred tank n. 连续搅拌釜
exothermic reactions n. 放热反应 fluidized bed Reactor n. 流动床反应釜 multiphase chemical reactions n. 多相化学反应 packed bed reactor n. 填充床反应器 pilot plant n. 试验工厂
Lesson 14 Air Pollution
Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damages the natural environment. Air pollution causes deaths and respiratory disease. Air pollution is often identified with major stationary sources, but the greatest source of emissions is mobile sources, mainly automobiles. Gases such as carbon dioxide, which contribute to global warming, have recently gained recognition as pollutants by climate scientists, while they also recognize that carbon dioxide is essential for plant life through photosynthesis.
空气污染颗粒物的人引入化学，大气，或生物材料，造成伤害或不适的人类或其他生物，或破坏自然环境。空气污染造成的死亡和呼吸系统疾病。空气污染往往是确定的主要固定污染源，但排放的最大来源是移动的来源，主要是汽车。二氧化碳之类的气体，是导致全球变暖，最近的气候科学家的污染物得到了认可，而他们也承认，二氧化碳是通过光合作用的植物生命所必需的。
The atmosphere is a complex, dynamic natural gaseous system that is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric ozone depletion due to air pollution has long been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth's ecosystems.
大气是一个复杂的，动态的天然气系统，来支持地球上的生命本质。平流层臭氧耗竭因空气污染一直是威胁人类健康和地球的生态系统。 Pollutants污染物
An air pollutant is known as a substance in the air that can cause harm to humans and the environment. Pollutants can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. In addition, they may be natural or man-made.
一种空气污染物被称为空气中的物质，可以对人体和环境造成的危害。污染物可在固体颗粒，形成液滴，或气体。此外，他们可能是天然的或人造的。
Pollutants can be classified as either primary or secondary. Usually, primary pollutants are substances directly emitted from a process, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbon monoxide gas from a motor vehicle exhaust or sulfur dioxide released from factories.
污染物可以被归类为主要或次要。通常，一个过程的主要污染物是从直接排放的物质，如火山喷发的火山灰，一氧化碳气体来自汽车废气、二氧化硫释放从工厂。
Secondary pollutants are not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants react or interact. An important example of a secondary pollutant is ground level ozone - one of the many secondary pollutants that make up photochemical smog.
二次污染物不能直接排放。相反，它们形成在空气中主要污染物反应或相互作用。一种二次污染的一个重要的例子是地面臭氧是光化学烟雾，使许多二次污染
Note that some pollutants may be both primary and secondary: that is, they are both emitted directly and formed from other primary pollutants.
请注意，有些污染物可能是原发性和继发性：即，他们都是直接排放和其他主要污染物的形
成。
Major primary pollutants produced by human activity include: 主要由人类活动产生的主要污染物包括：
Sulfur oxides (SOx) especially sulfur dioxide a chemical compound with the formula SO2. SO2 is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Since coal and petroleum often contain sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of the causes for concern over the environmental impact of the use of these fuels as power sources. 硫氧化物（SOx）尤其是二氧化硫和二氧化硫的化学化合物公式。二氧化硫是由火山和各种工业过程产生的。从煤和石油中常含有硫化合物，其燃烧产生的二氧化硫。SO2的进一步氧化，通常在催化剂的存在下，如NO2，形成硫酸，从而酸雨。这是[ 2 ]在使用这些燃料作为动力来源的环境影响问题的原因之一。
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) especially nitrogen dioxide are emitted from high temperature combustion. Can be seen as the brown haze dome above or plume downwind of cities.Nitrogen dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula NO2. It is one of the several nitrogen oxides. This reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor. NO2 is one of the most prominent air pollutants.
氮氧化物（NOx）特别是二氧化氮是高温燃烧排放。可以被看作是棕色的圆顶或羽顺风的城市。二氧化氮NO2与公式的化合物。这是一个几个氮氧化物。这红棕色的有毒气体，有一个特点鲜明，咬的气味。二是其中最为突出的空气污染物。
Carbon monoxide is colourless, odourless, non-irritating but very poisonous gas. It is a product by incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of carbon monoxide.
一氧化碳是无色，无味，无刺激性的但非常有毒气体。它是由燃料如天然气不完全燃烧的产物，煤和木材。汽车尾气是一氧化碳的主要来源。
Carbon dioxide (CO2), a greenhouse gas emitted from combustion. 二氧化碳（CO2），一种温室气体排放燃烧。
Volatile organic compounds VOCs are an important outdoor air pollutant. In this field they are often divided into the separate categories of methane ((CH4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also significant greenhouse gases via their role in creating ozone and in prolonging the life of methane in the atmosphere, although the effect varies depending on local air quality. Within the NMVOCs, the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and may lead to leukemia through prolonged exposure. 1,3-butadiene is another dangerous compound which is often associated with industrial uses. 挥发性有机化合物是一种重要的室外空气污染物。在这场他们往往分为不同的类别（甲烷（CH4）和非甲烷（NMVOCs）。甲烷是一种非常有效的温室气体，有助于增强全球变暖。其他烃类VOCs是重要的温室气体，通过产生臭氧和延长了甲烷在大气中的寿命的作用，虽然效果取决于当地的空气质量。在NMVOCs芳香族化合物，苯，甲苯和二甲苯是可疑致癌物质，可以通过延长曝光导致白血病。丁二烯是另一个危险的化合物，通常是用工业用途有关的。
Particulate matter Particulates, alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM) or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to particles and the gas together. Sources of particulate matter can be man made or natural. Some particulates
occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate significant amounts of aerosols. Averaged over the globe, anthropogenic aerosols—those made by human activities—currently account for about 10 percent of the total amount of aerosols in our atmosphere. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease, altered lung function and lung cancer.
颗粒物质的微粒，或者称为颗粒物（PM）或细颗粒，是固体或液体悬浮在空气中的微小颗粒。相反，气溶胶是指颗粒与气体一起。大气颗粒物源可以是人造或天然。有些颗粒物是自然发生的，从火山，沙尘暴，森林和草原火灾，有生命的植物，和浪花。人类活动，如燃烧化石燃料的车辆，电厂和各种工业过程中也产生了大量的气溶胶。全球平均的，人为气溶胶由人类活动使目前约占大气中的气溶胶总金额的百分之10。空气中的微粒的水平升高与健康的危害，如心脏病，肺功能的改变与肺癌。 oxic metals, such as lead, cadmium and copper. 有毒金属，如铅，镉和铜。
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), harmful to the ozone layer emitted from products currently banned from use. 氯氟烃（CFCs），从目前禁止使用的产品排放破坏臭氧层。
Ammonia (NH3) emitted from agricultural processes. Ammonia is a compound with the formula NH3. It is normally encountered as a gas with a characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is both caustic and hazardous. 氨（NH3）从农业过程中排放。氨是一种具有氨化合物公式。它通常是作为一种气体具有刺鼻的气味遇到。氨对陆地生物的营养需求明显作为食品和肥料的前兆。氨，直接或间接的影响，也对许多药物的合成砌块。尽管广泛使用，是碱和有害的氨。 Odors, such as from garbage, sewage, and industrial processes 气味，如垃圾，污水，工业过程
Radioactive pollutants produced by nuclear explosions, war explosives, and natural processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.
放射性污染物的核爆炸产生的爆炸，战争，和自然过程，如氡的放射性衰变。 Secondary pollutants include:
二次污染物包括：Particulate matter formed from gaseous primary pollutants and compounds in photochemical smog .Smog is a kind of air pollution; the word “smog” is a portmanteau of smoke and fog. Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog does not usually come from coal but from vehicular and industrial emissions that are acted on in the atmosphere by sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
颗粒物质从气态污染物和光化学烟雾形成的化合物。烟雾是一种空气污染；“烟雾”是一个合成烟与雾。结果经典的烟雾从大量的煤炭燃烧面积混合引起的烟尘和二氧化硫。现代的烟雾不经常来自于煤，但从汽车和工业排放物，作用在大气中经阳光照射产生的二次污染物，也与主要排放物结合形成光化学烟雾。
Ground level ozone (O3) formed from NOx and VOCs. Ozone (O3) is a key constituent of the troposphere (it is also an important constituent of certain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as the Ozone layer). Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the
chemical processes that occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about by human activities (largely the combustion of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog.
地面臭氧（O3）的NOx和VOCs形成。臭氧（O3）是对流层的关键组成部分（也是俗称的平流层臭氧层的某些地区一个重要的组成部分）。光化学和化学反应驱动多发生在白天和夜间的大气化学过程。在由人类活动带来的异常高浓度（主要是化石燃料的燃烧），它是一种污染物，和烟雾的一个组成部分。
Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) similarly formed from NOx and VOCs. 过氧硝酸（PAN）的NOx和VOCs同样构成。 Minor air pollutants include: 轻微的空气污染物包括：
A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants. Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Directive.
大量小的有害空气污染物。这些规定在美国清洁空气法案下，欧洲的空气框架指令。 A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can attach to particulate matter. 各种持久性有机污染物，它可以附着在颗粒物。
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes. Because of this, they have been observed to persist in the environment, to be capable of long-range transport, bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify in food chains, and to have potential significant impacts on human health and the environment.
持久性有机污染物（POPs）是耐环境退化是通过化学，生物有机化合物，和光解过程。正因为如此，他们已观察到持续存在于环境中，能远距离运输，生物蓄积在人体和动物的组织，在食物链的生物放大作用，并具有潜在的显着的对人类健康和环境的影响 anthropogenic adj. 人为的 carbon dioxide n. 二氧化碳 carbon monoxide n. 一氧化碳 chlorofluorocarbon n. 氟氯碳 particulate matter n. 颗粒物质 peroxyacetyl nitrate n. 硝酸过氧化乙酰 photochemical smog n. 光化烟雾 primary pollutants n. 一次污染物 secondary pollutants n. 二次污染物 stratospheric ozone depletion n. 平流层臭氧消耗 sulfur dioxide n. 二氧化硫 volcanic eruption n. 火山爆发
Lesson 21 Medical Chemistry
Chemistry has long been an integral part of the pharmaceutical industry and its importance should not diminish. Many currently marketed drugs such as the antineoplastic agent, paclitaxel, and the antibiotic, vancomycin, are natural products. The extracts of plants and marine organisms and the products of soil bacteria fermentation will continue to be investigated as potential sources of powerful new drug substances. Chemists are certainly involved in this arena of drug discovery as they conduct the painstaking isolation, purification, and structural characterization of
pharmacologically active components which most often are present in minute amounts in the natural source and which have extremely complex chemical structures. The enormous advances in molecular biology have resulted in the successful development of bio-engineered therapeutic agents, for example, human insulin, Herceptin (Genentech drug for breast cancer), and Enbrel (Immunex drug for rheumatoid arthritis). It is anticipated that many other biomolecules may be forthcoming for the treatment of human disease. 化学一直是制药行业的一个组成部分，其重要性不应该减少。许多已上市的药物如抗肿瘤药物，紫杉醇，和抗生素，万古霉素，是天然产品。植物和海洋生物和土壤细菌的发酵产品提取将继续研究的强大的新的药物的潜在来源。化学家确实参与了这一领域的药物发现他们进行艰苦的分离，纯化和药理活性成分，其中最常见的是存在于微量的天然来源，具有极其复杂的化学结构表征。在分子生物学的巨大进步已导致在生物工程药物的研制成功，例如，人胰岛素，赫赛汀（Genentech的药物对乳腺癌），和Enbrel（内克斯风湿性关节炎药物）。据预计，许多其他生物分子可能是即将到来的人类疾病的治疗。
However the great majority of existing drugs are small organic molecules (MW-200-600) that have been synthesized by medicinal chemists. There is no reason to doubt that most drugs of the future will also fall in this category. It is thus important to define what is meant by “medicinal chemist” and what role is played by the practitioners of this sub-discipline in the pharmaceutical industry. A traditional and perhaps somewhat narrow definition of medicinal chemist is that of a researcher engaged in the design and synthesis of bioactive molecules. As part of their academic training， many medicinal chemists carried out doctoral and postdoctoral work that involved the total synthesis of natural products andor the development of synthetic methodology. They are hired by pharmaceutical companies because of the skills they have gained in planning and conducting the synthesis of organic compounds. While such skills can remain important throughout chemists’ careers, they alone are insufficient for the challenging task of drug discovery in which, unlike the academic environment, synthetic chemistry is just a means to an end rather than an end in itself. Thus, the enterprising young chemical researcher who enters the industry must be able and willing to undergo an evolution from that of pure synthetic chemist who knows how to make compounds to that of medicinal chemist who also has an insight into what to make and why.
然而，现有的药物，绝大多数是有机小分子（mw-200-600）已被药物化学家合成了。没有理由怀疑大多数药物的未来也属于这一类。因此，定义什么是“药用化学家”和什么角色是由这一分支学科的从业者在制药工业中起着重要的。传统甚至有些狭隘的药物化学家是一个研究员，从事与生物活性分子的设计合成。作为他们的学术训练的一部分，许多药物化学家进行博士和博士后工作涉及天然产物的全合成及合成方法的发展。他们受雇于制药公司因为他们在策划和进行合成有机化合物获得的技能。虽然这样的技能可以在药店的事业仍然是重要的，他们还不足以在药物发现的具有挑战性的任务，不同的学术环境，合成化学只是达到目的的一种手段，而不是目的本身。因此，有进取心的年轻化学研究员进入行业必须能够和愿意接受一个从纯的合成化学家谁知道如何使化合物的药物化学家谁也洞察到做和为什么。 Such insight is gained by acquiring an expanded knowledge base. It is important for the medicinal chemist to know what structural components act as pharmacophores in existing drugs. Pharmacophores, which can be of varying complexity, comprise the essential structural elements of a drug molecule that enable it to interact on the molecular level with a biological macromolecule such as a receptor or enzyme and thus impart a pharmacological effect. The medicinal chemist must become skilled at analyzing the structure activity relationships (SAR) that
pertain to the series of compounds on which he is working. That is, how does the activity in a biological test of analogs within the series change depending on the introduction of substituents of various size, polarity, and lipophilicity at various domains of the parent drug molecule? Elucidation of the SAR within a series of active compounds is the key to optimizing the potency and other desirable biological properties in order to identify a new chemical entity (NCE) as a bona fide drug candidate. Quantitative structure activity relationships (QSAR) are often employed in this effort; analyses employing linear free energy relationships, linear regression, and other techniques can be utilized to correlate biological activity with the electronic, steric, polarizability, and other physicallchemical parameters of the substituent groups on members of a series of structurally related compounds.
这种见解是通过收购扩大知识库了。要知道结构构件作为现有药物的药效的药物化学家很重要。药效基团，可以不同的复杂性，包含一种药物分子，使其在与生物大分子如受体或酶分子水平的相互作用，从而产生药理效应的结构要素。药用化学家必须成为熟练的分析结构-活性关系（SAR）属于该系列化合物对他工作的。那就是，如何在生物试验活动的类似物在一系列的变化取决于各种大小，取代基的引入极性，和亲脂性的母体药物分子在不同领域？在一系列的活性化合物的SAR鉴定是优化以及其他优良的生物学特性的效力来确定一个新的化学实体的关键（NCE）作为一个善意的候选药物。定量结构活性关系（QSAR）经常被用在这方面的努力；分析采用线性自由能关系，线性回归，和其他技术可用于生物活性与电子，空间，极化和关联，对一系列的结构上相关的化合物的取代基参数等physicallchemical成员。
The synthesis and isolation of pure enantiomers has become increasingly important. In the past chiral drugs were most often marketed as racemic mixtures since it was not deemed cost-effective to provide them in enantiomercially pure form. However, in many cases one or the other enantiomers of an optically active drug may have a significantly greater level of the desired biological activity and/or less side effect liability than its antipode. Regulatory agencies such as the FDA now routinely require that each enantiomer of a chiral drug be isolated and evaluated in tests of efficacy, side effects, and toxicity. If one of the enantiomers is shown to be clearly superior then it is likely that it is the form that will be developed as the drug candidate. Thus enantioselective chemical reactions which can afford a high enantiomeric excess(ee) of one or the other of a pair of enantiomers are valuable components of the medicinal chemist’s synthetic tools. Enzyme chemistry plays a prominent role in drug R&D since isolated enzymes or microorganisms can often achieve an enantiospecific chemical transformation much more efficiently and economically than conventional synthetic methods. Many “big pharma” companies now have dedicated groups that exclusively study enzymatic reactions. 与纯对映异构体的分离已成为越来越重要的合成。在过去的手性药物是最经常被作为外消旋混合物，因为它被认为是不符合成本效益enantiomercially纯粹的形式提供给他们。然而，在许多情况下，一个或一个光学活性的药物可能比其他的对映体的对映体的一个显着更大的所需的生物活性和/或副作用少负债水平。管理机构如美国食品和药物管理局现在经常要求每个对映异构体的手性药物分离和测试评价疗效，副作用，毒性。如果其中的一个对映体被证明是明显优于那么很可能它是形式，将发展作为候选药物。因此，对映选择性化学反应可负担得起的高对映体过量（ee）的一个或一对对映体的其他的药物化学家的合成工具价值的成分。酶化学在药物研发从分离的酶或微生物往往可以实现手性化学转化更有效和经济上比传统的合成方法发挥了突出的作用。许多“大制药公司现在有专门小组，专门研究酶促反应。
Lesson 23 Food Nutrition
Food is any substance, usually composed primarily of carbohydrates, fats, water and/or proteins, that can be eaten or drunk by an animal or human for nutrition or pleasure.
食物是什么物质，通常由主要是碳水化合物，脂肪，水分和/或蛋白质，能吃或一个动物或人体对营养和乐趣醉。
here are seven major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates , fats , fiber , minerals, proteins, vitamins, and water. These nutrient classes can be generally grouped into the categories of macronutrients (needed in relatively large amounts), and micronutrients (needed in smaller quantities). The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, proteins and water. The micronutrients are minerals and vitamins.
有七大类：营养，碳水化合物，脂肪，纤维，矿物质，蛋白质，维生素，和水。这些营养类一般可分为宏量营养素的种类（金额比较大的需要），以及微量元素（需要在较小的数量）。宏量营养素是碳水化合物，脂肪，纤维，蛋白质和水。微量营养素是维生素与矿物质。 The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide energy, which is measured in Joules or kilocalories (often called “Calories” and written with a capital C to distinguish from gram calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram. Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are necessary for other reasons.
大量营养素（不含纤维和水）提供能量，这是焦耳或热量测量（通常称为“卡路里”和大写C区分克卡路里）。碳水化合物和蛋白质为17 kJ（4大卡）的每克脂肪提供能量，而37 kJ（9大卡）每克。维生素，矿物质，纤维，和水不提供能量，但所需的其他原因。
Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates may be simple monomers (glucose, fructose, galactose), or large polymers polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of various fatty acid monomers bound to glycerol. Some fatty acids are essential, but not all. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to the elements of carbohydrates and fats. The nitrogen-containing monomers of protein, called amino acids, fulfill many roles other than energy metabolism, and when they are used as fuel, getting rid of the nitrogen places a burden on the kidneys. Similar to fatty acids, certain amino acids are essential.
碳水化合物和脂肪分子由碳，氢，氧的原子。碳水化合物可以是简单的单体（葡萄糖，果糖，半乳糖），或大的高分子多糖（淀粉）。脂肪甘油三酯，由各种脂肪酸甘油单体的约束。一些脂肪酸是必不可少的，但并非所有的。蛋白质分子中含有除脂肪与碳水化合物的元素氮原子。含氮单体蛋白，称为氨基酸，完成其他比能量代谢的许多角色，当它们被用作燃料，摆脱了氮的地方对肾脏的负担。类似的脂肪酸，某些氨基酸是必不可少的。
Other micronutrients not categorized above include antioxidants and phytochemicals. 其他微量元素分以上不包括抗氧化剂和植物化学物质。
Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient classes. Some nutrients are required on a regular basis, while others are needed less frequently. Poor health can be caused by an imbalance of nutrients, whether an excess or a deficiency.
大多数食品中含有的一种混合的部分或全部的营养类。有些营养在定期的基础上，当别人需要较少。健康状况不佳可能造成的不平衡的营养，无论过剩或不足。
Lesson 24 What Is Food Chemistry?
What is food chemistry? Food Science deals with the production, processing, distribution, preparation, evaluation, and utilization of food. Food chemists work with plants that have been harvested for food, and animals that have been slaughtered for food. Food chemists are concerned with how these food products are processed, prepared, and distributed. For example, to address consumer demands, some food chemists are involved with finding fat and sugar substitutes that do not alter food taste and texture.
食品化学是什么？食品科学与生产，加工，配送，制备，评价，和利用的食物。食品化学家用已收获的植物性食物，并已用于屠宰的动物。食品化学家关注的是如何将这些食品加工，制备，和分布。例如，解决消费者的要求，一些食品化学家参与发现脂肪和糖的替代品，不改变食物的味道和质地。
Basic food chemistry deals with the three primary components in food: carbohydrates, lipids and proteins.
基本食品化学与食品中的三个主要组成部分：碳水化合物，脂类和蛋白质。
Carbohydrates make up a group of chemical compounds found in plant and animal cells. They have an empirical formula CnH2nOn or (CH2O)n. Since this formula is essentially a combination of carbon and water these materials are called “hydrates of carbon or carbohydrates”. Carbohydrates are the primary product of plant photosynthesis, and are consumed as fuel by plants and animals. Food carbohydrates include the simple carbohydrates (sugars) and complex carbohydrates (starches and fiber).
碳水化合物构成的一组化合物在植物和动物细胞中发现。他们有一个经验公式cnh2non或（CH2O），因为这个公式基本上是一个组合的碳和水这些材料被称为“水合物的碳或碳水化合物”。碳水化合物是植物光合作用的主要产品，并消耗的植物和动物油。的碳水化合物，包括简单的碳水化合物（糖类）和碳水化合物（淀粉和纤维）。
Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, and cholesterol. In the body, fat serves as a source of energy, a thermal insulator, and a cushion around organs; and it is an important component of the cell. Since fats have 2.25 times the energy content of carbohydrates and proteins, most people try to limit their intake of dietary fat to avoid becoming overweight. In most instances, fats are from animal products – meats, milk products, eggs, and seafood and oils are from plants – nuts, olives, and seeds. We use lipids for flavor, to cook foods, and to improve the texture of foods.
脂类包括脂肪，油，蜡，和胆固醇。在体内，脂肪作为能量的来源，热绝缘体，和垫在器官周围；它是细胞的重要组成部分。由于脂肪有2.25倍的碳水化合物和蛋白质的能量含量，大多数人试图限制他们的饮食中脂肪的摄入量，以避免超重。在大多数情况下，脂肪是从动物产品–肉类，奶制品，鸡蛋，海鲜和油是从植物–橄榄，坚果，种子。我们使用的油脂味，煮的食物，以提高食品的质地。
Proteins are important components of food. Every cell requires protein for structure and function. Proteins are complex polymers composed of amino acids. There are 20 amino acids found in the body. Eight of these are essential for adults and children, and nine are essential for infants. Essential means that we cannot synthesize them in large enough quantities for growth and repair of our bodies, and therefore, they must be included in our diet. Proteins consist of long chains of 100-500 amino acids that form into three-dimensional structures, their native state. When you change the native state of the protein, you change the three-dimensional structure, which is referred to as denaturation. Factors that cause denaturation include heating, acid, beating and
freezing.
蛋白质的食物的重要成分。每一个细胞的结构和功能的蛋白质的需要。蛋白质是由氨基酸复合聚合物。有20种氨基酸在体内发现。八这些是必不可少的成人和儿童，九是必不可少的婴儿。我们不能合成足够大的数量给我们身体的生长和修复，因此必要的手段，他们必须被包含在我们的饮食。蛋白质组成的长链，100-500氨基酸形成的三维结构，其原生状态。当你改变蛋白质的天然状态，改变你的三维结构，这是被称为变性。引起变性的因素包括加热，酸，殴打和冻结。 amino acid n. 氨基酸， 胺 amino group n. 氨基 empirical formula n. 实验式， 经验式 fatty acid n. 脂肪酸 peptide bonds n. 肽键 polyphenol oxidase n. 多酚氧化酶 salivary amylase n. 唾液淀粉酶 steroid hormone n. 甾类激素 table sugar n. 蔗糖 triacylglycerol n. 三酰甘油，甘油三酯
Lesson 25 How Do Food Additives Affect Your Health?
The possibility of harmful or toxic substances becoming part of the food supply concerns the public, the food industry, and regulatory agencies. Toxic chemicals may be introduced into foods unintentionally through direct contamination, through environmental pollution, and as a result of processing. Many naturally occurring food compounds may be toxic. A summary of the various toxic chemicals in foods was presented in a scientific status summary of the Institute of Food Technologists (1975). Many toxic substances present below certain levels pose no hazard to health. Some substances are toxic and at the same time essential for good health (such as vitamin A and selenium). An understanding of the properties of additives and contaminants and how these materials are regulated by governmental agencies is important to the food scientist.
有害或有毒物质成为食品供应部分上市的可能性，食品工业，以及监管机构。有毒的化学物质可以被引入到食品无意通过直接污染，环境污染，作为一个结果，处理。许多自然产生的化合物可能是有毒的食物。食品中的各种有毒化学物质的总结是一个科学的食品技术学院的现状的总结（1975）。目前许多低于一定水平的健康没有危害的有毒物质。有些物质是有毒的，同时保持身体健康（如维生素、硒）。的添加剂和污染物的性质的理解，这些材料是由政府机构的监管是重要的食品科学家。
Food additives can be divided into two major groups, intentional additives and incidental additives. Intentional additives are chemical substances that are added to food for specific purposes. Although we have little control over unintentional or incidental additives, intentional additives are regulated by strict governmental controls. The U.S. law governing additives in foods is the Food Additives Amendment to the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1958. According to this act, a food additive is defined as follows:
食品添加剂可分为两大类，故意的添加剂和杂费添加剂。故意的添加剂的化学物质，添加到食品中有特定用途的。虽然我们有意外或偶然添加剂点控制，故意的添加剂有严格的政府管制的规定。美国法在食品添加剂是食品添加剂修正执政的联邦食品，药品和化妆品法案
1958。根据这一法案，食品添加剂的定义如下：
The term food additive means any substance the intended use of which results, or may reasonably be expected to result, directly or indirectly in its becoming a component or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food (including any substance intended for use in producing, manufacturing, packing, processing, preparing, treating, packaging, transporting, or holding food; and including any source of radiation intended for any such use), if such a substance is not generally recognized, among experts qualified by scientific training and experience to evaluate its safety, as having been adequately shown through scientific procedures (or, in the case of a substance used in food prior to January 1,1958, through either scientific procedures or experience based on common use in food) to be safe under the condition of its intended use; except that such a term does not include pesticides, color additives and substances for which prior sanction or approval was granted.
长期的食品添加剂是指任何物质的使用目的，结果，或可合理预期的结果，直接或间接地在其成为一个组件或影响任何食物的特性（包括任何物质用于生产，制造，包装，加工，生产，包装，运输，处理，或持有食品；和包括任何的辐射源，用于任何用途），如果这样的物质不是公认的专家，在合格的科学训练和经验来评估其安全性，已通过科学的程序，充分显示出（或者，在一个在食品中的应用到一月11958，现有的物质情况下通过科学的程序或基于在食物中使用的共同经验）对其使用条件下是安全的；但这一期限不包括农药，而之前的制裁或批准的颜色添加剂和物质。
acesulfame-K n. 乙酰磺胺酸钾，一种甜味剂 adrenal gland n. 肾上腺 food additives n. 食品添加剂 ionizing radiation n. 致电离辐射 monosodium glutamate n. 味精，谷氨酸一钠（味精的化学成分） natural flavors n. 天然食用香料，天然食用调料 nutrasweet n. 天冬甜素 potassium bromide n. 溴化钾 propyl gallate n. 没食子酸丙酯 sodium chloride n. 氯化钠 sodium nitraten. n. 硝酸钠 sodium nitrite n. 亚硝酸钠 trans fats n. 反式脂肪
Lesson 26 Food Safety
Food safety is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness. This includes a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potentially severe health hazards. Food can transmit disease from person to person as well as serve as a growth medium for bacteria that can cause food poisoning. Debates on genetic food safety include such issues as impact of genetically modified food on health of further generations and genetic pollution of environment, which can destroy natural biological diversity. In developed countries there are intricate standards for food preparation, whereas in lesser developed countries the main issue is simply the availability of adequate safe water, which is usually a critical item.
食品安全是一个科学的描述处理，制备，和的方式，防止食源性疾病的存储。这包括一些例程，应遵循以避免潜在的严重危害健康的危险。食物传播疾病的人以及作为生长培养基中的细菌，可引起食物中毒。基因食品安全辩论包括转基因食品对进一步代和环境生物污染的健康影响等问题，从而破坏天然的生物多样性。在发达国家，有食品制备复杂的标准，而在不发达的主要问题是足够的安全用水供应的国家，这通常是一个关键项目。
Foodborne illness, commonly called “food poisoning,” is caused by bacteria, toxins, viruses, parasites, and prions. Roughly 7 million people die of food poisoning each year, with about 10 times as many suffering from a non-fatal version. The two most common factors leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination of ready-to-eat food from other uncooked foods and improper temperature control. Less commonly, acute adverse reactions can also occur if chemical contamination of food occurs, for example from improper storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be adulterated by a very wide range of articles (known as 'foreign bodies') during farming, manufacture, cooking, packaging, distribution or sale. These foreign bodies can include pests or their droppings, hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, and all manner of other contaminants. It is possible for certain types of food to become contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe container, such as a ceramic pot with lead-based glaze.
食源性疾病，通常被称为“食物中毒，是由细菌，病毒，毒素，寄生虫引起的，和朊病毒。大约有7000000人死于食物中毒，每年，约10倍的患非致命的版本。最常见的两种因素导致的细菌性食源性疾病案例都准备吃其它未煮过的食物和温度控制不当的食物交叉污染。不常见的，急性不良反应也可以如果食品化学污染的发生的发生，例如从储存不当，或使用非食品级的肥皂和消毒剂。食物也可以掺杂得到了非常广泛的文章（称为“异物”）在农业，制造，烹饪，包装，分销或销售。这些外国机构可以包括害虫或它们的粪便，毛，烟头，木屑，和各种各样的其他污染物。对于某些类型的食物被污染，如果储存或在一个不安全的容器，它是可能的，如铅釉陶瓷锅。
Food poisoning has been recognized as a disease of man since as early as Hippocrates. The sale of rancid, contaminated or adulterated food was commonplace until introduction of hygiene, refrigeration, and vermin controls in the 19th century. Discovery of techniques for killing bacteria using heat and other microbiological studies by scientists such as Louis Pasteur contributed to the modern sanitation standards that are ubiquitous in developed nations today. This was further underpinned by the work of Justus von Liebig, which led to the development of modern food storage and food preservation methods. In more recent years, a greater understanding of the causes of food-borne illnesses has led to the development of more systematic approaches such as the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), which can identify and eliminate many risks.
食物中毒已被公认为人类的疾病早希波克拉底。腐臭的销售被污染或掺假食品是司空见惯的，直到引进卫生，制冷，并在第十九世纪的害虫控制。杀死细菌和其他微生物的研究，利用热今天的科学家如路易斯巴斯德促成了现代卫生标准，在发达国家普遍存在的技术发现。这是进一步支持的李比希的工作，其中LED的现代食品贮存保鲜方法的发展。最近几年，一个更深入的了解，对食源性疾病的原因有LED的发展更系统的方法，如危害分析与关键控制点（HACCP），它可以识别和消除各种风险。
The State Food and Drug Administration of China (SFDA) was founded in 2003 as part of China's efforts to improve food safety. The SFDA is responsible for overseeing and coordinating the other health, food, and drug agencies. It is “directly under the State Council, which is in charge of comprehensive supervision on the safety management of food, health food and cosmetics and is
the competent authority of drug regulation.” The SFDA encompasses ten departments that regulate and oversee different aspects of food and drug law. These include the General Office Department of Planning and Finance, the Department of Policy and Regulations, the Department of Food Safety Coordination, the Department of Food Safety Supervision, the Department of Drug Registration, the Department of Medical Devices, the Department of Drug Safety and Inspection, the Department of Drug Market Compliance, the Department of Personnel and Education, and the Department of International Cooperation.
中国国家食品药品监督管理局（SFDA）成立于2003，是中国努力改善食品安全部。国家食品药品监督管理局负责监督和协调其他健康，食物，药品机构。它是“国务院直属的，这是对食品安全管理的综合监管，保健食品、化妆品和药品监管当局。”国家食品药品监督管理局包括十个部门，规范和监督食品和药品法的不同方面。这些措施包括计划和财政部的办公室，政策法规司，其食品安全协调部，对食品安全监管部门，该药品注册部，该部的医疗设备，药品安全检查部门，对药品市场的合规部门，人事教育部门，与国际合作部。 food poisoning n. 食物中毒 foodborne n. 食物传染 genetic food n. 转基因食品 hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) n. 危害分析关键控制点技术 maternal and child health care n. 妇幼保健护理 national patriotic health campaign committee(NPHCC) n. 全国爱国卫生运动委员会 rural health n. 农村卫生管理 the state food and drug administration (SFDA) n. 国家食品药品监督管理局
Lesson 27 Spectroscopy 1Introduction to Spectroscopy 光谱学导论
(1) What Is Spectroscopy? （1）光谱技术是什么？
Spectroscopy is a technique that uses the interaction of energy with a sample to perform an analysis. 光谱是一种技术，使用能量的互动与样品进行分析。 (2) What Is a Spectrum? （2）的频谱是什么？
The data that is obtained from spectroscopy is called a spectrum. A spectrum is a plot of the intensity of energy detected versus the wavelength (or mass or momentum or frequency, etc.) of the energy. 从光谱数据，称为谱。光谱是一个阴谋的检测与波长的能量密度（或质量、动量和能量的频率，等）。
(3) What Information Is Obtained? （3）获得什么信息？
A spectrum can be used to obtain information about atomic and molecular energy levels, molecular geometries, chemical bonds, interactions of molecules, and related processes. Often, spectra are used to identify the components of a sample (qualitative analysis). Spectra may also be used to measure the amount of material in a sample (quantitative analysis).
一种光谱可以用来获得关于原子和分子的能量水平，信息的分子结构，化学键，分子的相互作用，以及相关的过程。通常，光谱是用来确定样品的成分（定性分析）。光谱也可用于测量样品中的物质的量（定量分析）。
(4) What Instruments Are Needed? （4）需要什么工具？
There are several instruments that are used to perform a spectroscopic analysis. In simplest terms, spectroscopy requires an energy source (commonly a laser, but this could be an ion source or
radiation source) and a device for measuring the change in the energy source after it has interacted with the sample (often a spectrophotometer or interferometer).
有几个工具，用于执行光谱分析。在最简单的术语，光谱需要一个能量源（通常是激光，但这可能是一种离子源或辐射源）和一个在它与样品相互作用的测量在能源转换装置（通常是一个分光光度计或干涉仪）。
(5) What Are Some Types of Spectroscopy? （5）的光谱中的一些类型是什么？
There are as many different types of spectroscopy as there are energy sources! Here are some examples:
有许多不同类型的光谱有能源！这里是一些例子： Astronomical Spectroscopy天文光谱学
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy原子吸收光谱
Attenuated Total Reflectance Spectroscopy衰减全反射光谱 Electron Paramagnetic Spectroscopy电子顺磁谱 Electron Spectroscopy电子光谱
Fourier Transform Spectrosopy傅里叶变换光谱 Gamma-ray Spectroscopy伽玛射线光谱 Infrared Spectroscopy红外光谱 Laser Spectroscopy激光光谱学 Mass Spectrometry质谱
Multiplex or Frequency-Modulated Spectroscopy复用或频率调制光谱 Haman Spectroscopy哈曼谱 X-ray SpectroscopyX射线光谱 Lesson 28 Chromatography
Chromatography is a family of analytical chemistry techniques for the separation of mixtures. It involves passing the sample, a mixture which contains the analyte, in the “mobile phase”, often in a stream of solvent, through the “stationary phase.” The stationary phase retards the passage of the components of the sample. When components pass through the system at different rates they become separated in time, like runners in a marathon. Ideally, each component has a characteristic time of passage through the system. This is called it's “retention time.” 色谱法是分析化学混合物的分离技术的一个家庭。它包括通过样本，其中包含的分析物的混合物，在“移动相”，往往在一个流的溶剂，通过“固定相。“固定相阻碍样品的成分的通道。当组件通过以不同的速率就在时间上分离的系统，像一个马拉松运动员。理想情况下，每个组件都有通道的特征时间通过系统。这被称为是“停留时间”。
A chromatograph takes a chemical mixture carried by liquid or gas and separates it into its component parts as a result of differential distributions of the solutes as they flow around or over a stationary liquid or solid phase. Various techniques for the separation of complex mixtures rely on the differential affinities of substances for a gas or liquid mobile medium and for a stationary adsorbing medium through which they pass; such as paper, gelatin, or magnesium silicate gel. 气相色谱仪需要的化学混合物的液体或气体，分离出它的组成部分，由于溶质的微分分布作为他们绕流或在一个静止的液体或固体。对复杂的混合物分离的各种技术依靠气体或液体的移动介质和物质的不同亲和力固定吸附介质，通过它们传递的；如纸，明胶，或硅酸镁凝胶。 Analytical chromatography is used to determine the identity and concentration of molecules in a mixture. Preparative chromatography is used to purify larger quantities of a molecular species. 解析法是用来确定在一个混合的身份和浓度的分子。制备色谱纯化用大量的分子种类。
GC abbr. 气相色谱(Gas Chromatography) HPLC abbr. 高效液相色谱
(High Performance Liquid Chromatography) magnesium silicate gel n. 硅酸镁凝胶 mobile phase n. (色谱分析的)流动相 retention time n. 保留时间 stationary phase n. (色谱分析的)固定相 TLC abbr. 薄层色谱(Thin-Layer Chromatography)
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